Unit 1 extended vocab

Activation Energy

The minimum amount of energy required for a chemical reaction to occur, typically provided in the form of heat or activation by enzymes

Activators

Other molecules that will turn on the function of an enzyme, 2 types: cofactors and coenzymes

Active Site

The region of an enzyme molecule where the substrate binds and undergoes a chemical reaction, typically characterized by a specific three-dimensional structure complementary to the substrate

Adhesion

The attraction between molecules of different substances, causing them to stick together

Allosteric Site

A regulatory site on an enzyme molecule distinct from the active site, where non-substrate molecules (allosteric effectors) can bind and modulate the enzyme's activity

Amino Acid

Organic compounds containing an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), and a variable R-group, serving as the monomers of proteins

Anabolic

Refers to metabolic processes or pathways that build larger molecules from smaller ones, typically requiring energy input

Anion

A negatively charged ion formed by the gain of one or more electrons by an atom

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

A high-energy molecule that serves as the primary energy currency of the cell, storing and transferring energy within cells for metabolic processes such as biosynthesis, muscle contraction, and active transport

Buffer

A solution that resists changes in pH by neutralizing or absorbing excess hydrogen or hydroxide ions, maintaining the pH of a solution within a relatively narrow range

Calorie

A unit of energy representing the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one gram of water by one degree Celsius, also written as kilocalorie (kcal), it measures the energy our bodies can get from consuming food

Capillary Action

The movement of a liquid through a porous material due to the forces of adhesion, cohesion, and surface tension, it occurs when the adhesive forces between the liquid and the material are stronger than gravity

Carbohydrate

Organic molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of 1:2:1, serving as a primary source of energy and structural support in living organisms

Catabolic

Refers to metabolic processes or pathways that break down larger molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy

Catalyst

A substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction by lowering the activation energy barrier, without being consumed in the reaction

Cation

A positively charged ion formed by the loss of one or more electrons from an atom

Cell

The structural and functional unit of life, capable of carrying out all processes necessary for survival, cells are enclosed by a plasma membrane and may contain organelles

Cellulose

A complex carbohydrate consisting of long chains of glucose monomers, providing structural support to plant cell walls

Coenzyme

An organic molecule that functions as a cofactor, often participating in enzyme-catalyzed reactions by donating or accepting chemical groups

Cofactor

A non-protein molecule or ion that is required for the activity of some enzymes, assisting in catalysis by facilitating substrate binding or participating in chemical reactions

Cohesion

The tendency of molecules of the same substance to stick together, resulting in surface tension and the formation of drops

Competitive Inhibition

Type of inhibition that the inhibitor will bind up the active site and prevent the substrate from being able to access the active site

Covalent Bond

A chemical bond formed by the sharing of electron pairs between atoms, resulting in the formation of a stable molecular structure

Dehydration Synthesis

A chemical reaction in which two molecules are covalently bonded together with the removal of a water molecule, forming a larger molecule

Denaturation

The alteration of a protein's three-dimensional structure (tertiary structure) due to changes in temperature, pH, or exposure to certain chemicals, resulting in loss of protein function

Disaccharide

A carbohydrate consisting of two monosaccharide molecules joined together by a glycosidic linkage formed through a condensation reaction, examples include sucrose and lactose

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

A double-stranded nucleic acid molecule that encodes the genetic information of an organism and serves as a template for RNA synthesis, it consists of nucleotide monomers arranged in a double helix structure

Endergonic

Refers to a chemical reaction that absorbs energy from its surroundings, typically in the form of ATP, and has a positive change in free energy

Endothermic

Describes a chemical reaction or process that absorbs heat energy from its surroundings, resulting in an increase in temperature

Enzyme

Biological catalysts, usually proteins, that speed up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy required for the reaction to occur, without being consumed in the process

Ester Linkage

A covalent bond formed between a hydroxyl group (-OH) and a carboxyl group (-COOH) in fatty acids and glycerol molecules, resulting in the formation of triglycerides and phospholipids

Evaporative Cooling

The process by which the surface of a liquid cools as a result of the evaporation of water molecules with higher kinetic energy, leaving behind molecules with lower kinetic energy

Exergonic

Refers to a chemical reaction that releases energy to its surroundings, typically in the form of ATP hydrolysis, and has a negative change in free energy

Exothermic

Describes a chemical reaction or process that releases heat energy to its surroundings, resulting in a decrease in temperature

Glycogen

A polysaccharide composed of glucose monomers, serving as a storage form of glucose in animals

Glycosidic Linkage

A covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction, resulting in the formation of a disaccharide or polysaccharide

Heat of Vaporization

The amount of heat energy required to convert a unit mass of a liquid into vapor at constant temperature and pressure

Homeostasis

The process by which organisms maintain a stable internal environment despite external changes

Hydrogen Bond

Weak electrostatic attractions between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to an electronegative atom (such as oxygen or nitrogen) and another electronegative atom in a separate molecule or region of the same molecule

Hydrogen Ion (H+)

A positively charged ion formed when a hydrogen atom loses its electron, contributing to the acidity of a solution

Hydrolysis

A chemical reaction in which a molecule is broken down into smaller molecules by the addition of a water molecule, cleaving covalent bonds

Hydrophilic

Molecules or chemical groups that are attracted to water and tend to dissolve in it, typically due to the presence of polar or charged groups

Hydrophobic

Molecules or chemical groups that repel water and tend not to dissolve in it, typically due to the presence of nonpolar groups

Hydroxide Ion (OH-)

A negatively charged ion formed when a water molecule loses a hydrogen ion, contributing to the alkalinity of a solution

Induced Fit

A model of enzyme-substrate interaction in which the active site of an enzyme undergoes a conformational change upon binding to the substrate, resulting in optimal alignment and catalysis of the reaction

Inhibition

The process by which a molecule (inhibitor) binds to an enzyme and decreases its activity, either reversibly or irreversibly

Inorganic

Compounds not primarily composed of carbon and hydrogen, examples include salts, metals, and water

Lipid

Diverse group of hydrophobic organic molecules, including fats, phospholipids, and steroids, that serve as energy storage molecules, structural components of cell membranes, and signaling molecules

Macromolecule

Large molecules composed of smaller subunits called monomers, the four main types are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids

Micronutrition

Essential nutrients required by organisms in small quantities for proper growth, development, and physiological function, examples include vitamins and minerals

Monomer

A small molecule that can join with other similar molecules to form a larger polymer through a condensation reaction

Monosaccharide

The simplest form of carbohydrate, consisting of a single sugar molecule that cannot be further hydrolyzed into smaller sugars, examples include glucose, fructose, and galactose

Oligosaccharide

3-10 monosaccharides linked into a chain, oligosaccharides function in cell recognition, immune function, and cell signaling

Organic

Compounds primarily composed of carbon and hydrogen, often associated with living organisms

Neutralization

The chemical reaction between an acid and a base to form water and a salt, resulting in the neutralization of acidic or basic properties

Noncompetitive Inhibition

Type of inhibition where an inhibitor will bind to an allosteric site, causing a conformational change which causes the active site to stop working

Nonpolar

Molecules or chemical bonds with an even distribution of electron density, lacking distinct positive or negative regions

Nucleic Acid

Biological macromolecules, including DNA and RNA, composed of nucleotide monomers that store and transmit genetic information in living organisms

Nucleotide

The monomeric units of nucleic acids, consisting of a nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar, and one or more phosphate groups

Peptide Bond

A covalent bond formed between the amino group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of another amino acid during protein synthesis, resulting in the formation of a peptide linkage

pH

A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution, determined by the concentration of hydrogen ions ([H+]), the scale ranges from 0 to 14

Phosphodiester Linkage

A covalent bond formed between a phosphate group and two adjacent hydroxyl groups in nucleotides, linking adjacent nucleotides in nucleic acid polymers (DNA and RNA)

Phospholipid

A type of lipid consisting of a hydrophilic phosphate head and two hydrophobic fatty acid tails, forming the basic structure of cell membranes

Polar/ Polarity

Molecules or chemical bonds with an uneven distribution of electron density, resulting in regions of partial positive and negative charge

Polymer

A large molecule composed of repeating subunits (monomers) linked together by covalent bonds

Polysaccharide

A complex carbohydrate composed of many monosaccharide units joined together by glycosidic linkages, serving as energy storage molecules or structural components in cells, examples include starch, glycogen, and cellulose

Primary Protein Structure

The linear sequence of amino acids in a protein chain, determined by the order of nucleotides in the gene encoding the protein

Product

The ending material for a chemical reaction or enzymatic reaction

Protein

Large biological molecules composed of amino acid monomers linked by peptide bonds, serving diverse functions including structural support, enzymatic catalysis, and cell signaling

Quaternary Protein Structure

The arrangement of multiple protein subunits (polypeptide chains) to form a functional protein complex

Reaction Coordinate Diagram

A graphical representation of the progress of a chemical reaction over time, showing the energy changes (potential energy) of reactants and products as the reaction proceeds

Reaction Rate

The speed at which a chemical reaction occurs, typically expressed as the change in concentration of reactants or products per unit of time

Ribosomes

Cellular structures that facilitate protein synthesis by linking amino acids according to mRNA sequences

RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)

A single-stranded nucleic acid molecule that plays various roles in gene expression, including mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA, it consists of nucleotide monomers and is involved in protein synthesis

Saturated Fatty Acid

Refers to fatty acids or fats containing only single covalent bonds between carbon atoms, maximizing the number of hydrogen atoms bonded to carbon atoms and lacking double bonds

Secondary Protein Structure

The localized folding patterns within a protein chain, resulting from hydrogen bonding between amino acid residues, common secondary structures include alpha helices and beta sheets

Specific Heat Capacity

The amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by one degree Celsius, indicating the substance's resistance to temperature change

Starch

A storage molecule for carbohydrates in plants, this is a very large polysaccharide

Substrate

The specific molecule or molecules upon which an enzyme acts to catalyze a chemical reaction

Surface Tension

The cohesive force exerted by molecules at the surface of a liquid, minimizing the surface area to form a "skin" or "film"

Tertiary Protein Structure

The overall three-dimensional conformation of a protein, determined by interactions between amino acid side chains

Triglyceride

A lipid molecule composed of three fatty acid molecules esterified to a glycerol molecule, serving as a storage form of energy in adipose tissue

Universal Solvent

Water, due to its ability to dissolve a wide range of solutes, earning it the nickname "universal solvent"

Unsaturated Fatty Acid

Refers to fatty acids or fats containing one or more double bonds between carbon atoms, resulting in fewer hydrogen atoms bonded to carbon atoms and a kinked molecular structure