AP BIO MIDTERM 1-4

Cohesion

water molecules stick together

Adhesion

water molecules stick to other polar molecules

Density of water

As water freezes, it forms a crystalline structure, making ice less dense than water. 

dehydration synthesis

water taken out to form a bond

hydrolysis

water added to break a bond

carbs

CHO

maltose

disaccharide formed by condensation of two glucose molecules

sucrose

disaccharide formed by condensation of a glucose molecule and a fructose molecule

lactose

disaccharide formed by condensation of a glucose molecule and a galactose molecule.

glycogen and starch are formed by the condensation

alpha glucose

cellulose is formed by the condensation of

beta glucose

glycogen

animal energy storage

starch

plant energy storage

cellulose

plant structure

chitin

fungus structure

proteins

chon

primary structure

amino acid chain

secondary structure

alpha and beta sheets (hydrogen bonding)

tertiary structure

3D shape of a protein, resulting from interactions between R groups.

quaternary structure

polypeptide chains

functions of proteins

Enzymes

Structural Support

Defense  

Signaling

Transport

DNA

double helix, deoxyribose, A-T C-G

RNA

single stranded, ribose A-U C-G

rough endoplasmic reticulum

Has ribosomes; makes and transports proteins.

smooth er

No ribosomes; makes lipids and detoxifies toxins.

Golgi Apparatus

Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for transport or secretion.

Peroxisome

Breaks down fatty acids and detoxifies harmful substances like hydrogen peroxide.

Hypertonic Solution

A solution with a higher solute concentration outside the cell; water moves out of the cell, causing it to shrink.

Hypotonic Solution

A solution with a lower solute concentration outside the cell; water moves into the cell, causing it to swell.

Light-Dependent Reactions Input

Input: Light, water, ADP, NADP⁺

Light-Dependent Reactions Output

Output: ATP, NADPH, oxygen (O₂)

Light-Dependent Reactions Process

• Light excites electrons in chlorophyll.

• Water is split (photolysis), releasing O₂.

• ETC generates ATP (via photophosphorylation) and NADPH

Light-Dependent Reactions Location

thykaloid membrane

Light-Independent Reactions (Calvin Cycle) location

stroma

Light-Independent Reactions (Calvin Cycle) Output

Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆), ADP, NADP⁺.

Light-Independent Reactions (Calvin Cycle) Input

CO₂, ATP, NADPH

Light-Independent Reactions (Calvin Cycle) Process

CO₂ is fixed into a 3-carbon sugar (G3P) using ATP and NADPH.

Glycolysis input

Glucose, 2 ATP.

Glycolysis output

2 pyruvate, 2ATP, 2 NADH.

Glycolysis location

cytoplasm

Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle) location

mitochondrial matrix

Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle) input

Acetyl-CoA (derived from pyruvate

Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle) output

2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH₂, CO₂ (per glucose molecule).

Electron Transport Chain (ETC) location

inner mitochondria membrane

Electron Transport Chain (ETC) input

NADH, FADH₂, O₂.

ETC output

~32-34 ATP, water.

ETC process

• Electrons are transferred through protein complexes, pumping protons (H⁺) into the intermembrane space.

• ATP synthase uses the proton gradient to generate ATP (oxidative phosphorylation).

• O₂ serves as the final electron acceptor, forming water.

exergonic

A chemical reaction that releases energy; occurs spontaneously, products have more energy (Example: Cellular respiration.)

endergonic

A chemical reaction that absorbs energy, products have less energy (EX; Photosynthesis)

negative feedback

A mechanism where a process is inhibited or reduced to maintain homeostasis.

Positive Feedback:

A mechanism where a process is amplified or enhanced, pushing the system further from equilibrium.

interphase

G₁, S, G₂ phases

Cyclins

Proteins that regulate the cell cycle by activating cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs)

CDKS

Enzymes that, when activated by cyclins, regulate the progression of the cell cycle.