Unit 3: Development

teratogens

agents (chemicals and viruses) that can reach embryo during prenatal development and cause harm

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive defects in children caused by birth mother’s heavy drinking during pregnancy

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation

maturation

biological growth processes that enable appropriate changes in behavior

critical period

an optimal period in early life when exposure to a stimuli or experience produces normal development

cognition

all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

schemas

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

assimilation

interpreting new experiences into existing schemas

accomodation

adapting current schemas to incorporate new information

sensorimotor stage

(from birth to almost 2) where infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory perceptions and motor activities

object permanence

(8-12 months) the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

preoperational stage

(2- 6 or 7 years) when a child learns to use language but doesn’t understand the mental operations of concrete logic

conservation

(7 years) properties (mass, volume, and number of objects) remain the same despite the form of the object

egocentric

(during preoperational stage) child has difficulty taking on another’s point of view

concrete operational

(7-11 year) cognitive development where children can perform the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

formal operational

(12 years) the stage of cognitive development which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

language

agreed system of spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

phonemes

the smallest sound unit

morphemes

the smallest sound unit that carries meaning

grammar

set of rules for a language that allows us to effectively communicate

universal grammar (UG)

humans’ innate predisposition to understand principles and rules that govern grammar in all language

babbling stage (4 months)

infant spontaneously utters various sounds that are not related to household language

babbling stage (10 months)

utters sound related to household language

two word stage

(2 years) child speaks in mostly two word statements

telegraphic speech

speaks using mostly nouns and verbs

aphasia

impairment of language usually caused by left hemisphere damage

Broca’s area

speaking language

Wernicke’s area

understanding language

linguistic determinism

hypothesis that language determines the way we think

linguistic relativism

idea that language influences the way we think

ecological systems theory

a theory of the social environment’s influence on human developments, using 5 systems (microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, chronosystem)

microsystem

family and friends

mesosystem

connections of people around them

exosystem

social instances that do not involve the child

macrosystem

overarching culture: religion and social norms

chronosystem

time that changes environment and child

stranger anxiety

(8 months) fear of strangers

attachment

an emotional tie with others

imprinting

process where certain animal form strong attachments during early life (does not happen to humans)

strange situation

procedure for studying child-caregiver attachment; child placed in unfamiliar environment while caregiver leaves, when they return, child’s reactions observed

secure attachment

comfortable explore environments with caregivers, only temporary distress when they leave, find comfort when they return

insecure attachment

display either clinging (anxious attachment) or resistance to closeness (avoidant attachment)

temperament

a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

basic trust

a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with caregivers

anxious attachment

constantly crave acceptance by remain alert to possible signs of rejection

avoidant attachment

experience discomfort when getting close to others and use avoidant strategies

self-concept

all thoughts and feeling about self- “who am I?”

adaptability

capacity to learn new behaviors that can help us cope with changing world

learning

process of acquiring through experiencing new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together

stimulus

any events or situation that evokes a response

respondent behavior

occurs as an automatic response to stimuli

operant behaviors

behavior that operates on the environment, which produces a consequence

cognitive learning

acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, watching others, or through language

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli

behaviorism

the view that psychology should be studied objectively, without personal thoughts or processes

neutral stimuli (NS)

a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

unconditioned response (UCR)

an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

a stimulus that unconditionally- naturally and automatically- triggers an unconditioned response (UCR)

conditioned response (CR)

a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus

conditioned stimulus (CS)

an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

acquisition

the initial learning of an association; begins linking a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response

high-order conditioning

CS in one conditioning experience is paired with a neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) association

extinction

diminishing of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of a weakened conditioned response

generalization

tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit smaller responses

discrimination

the learning ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been associated with a conditioned stimulus

operant conditioning

type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely if followed by punisher

law of effect

Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable (reinforce) consequences become more likely and behaviors followed by unfavorable (punish) to become less likely

operant chamber

a chamber (AKA “skinner box”) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; devices record rate of pressing

reinforcement

any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

shaping

reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of desired behaviors

discriminative stimulus

a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcements

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting a pleasurable stimulus (presented after response to strengthen behavior)

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing an aversive stimulus (removed after response to strengthen behavior) (NOT punishment)

primary reinforcers

innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need (unlearned)

conditioned reinforcers

“secondary reinforcers” stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer

reinforcement schedules

pattern that defines how often desired response will be reinforced

continuous reinforcement schedule

reinforcing desired response every time it occurs

partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule

reinforcing a response only part of the time

partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule has more (__________) but more resistance to (__________)

acquisition; existence

fixed ratio schedules

reinforced a response only after a specified number of responses

variable ratio schedule

reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

fixed interval schedules

reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

variable interval schedules

reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

punishment

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows

responses at a higher rate when linked to number (_________) than when linked to a time (_________)

ratio schedule; interval schedule

responding more consistent when reinforcement is unpredictable (____________) than when predictable (__________)

variable schedule; fixed schedule

nature vs nurture

debate about the impact of genetically inherited features (nature) or environmental factors (determine) the characteristics of an individual

stability vs change

debate about the extended to which traits and characteristics of an individual remain the same or change throughout life

cross-sectional

comparing groups of people at different stages but at one point in time

longitudinal

comparing the same people over time

infancy

(birth- 1 year) earliest period of postnatal life

rooting reflex

automatic and unlearned response of a newborn; turn and suck in the direction of the stimulus

fine motor coordination

coordination of small muscles to control precise movements (handwriting, drawing, cutting)

gross motor coordination

activities or skills that require large muscles to move (walking, hopping, running)

menarche

first menstruation of a female

menopause

female’s decrease in reproductive capacity

pretend play

(preoperational stage) make-believe fantasy play in which children take on the roles of those they know