History- Medicine through time

What did people believe caused disease during the Medieval era

Punishment from God/spiritual beliefs (Astrology)
Miasma (bad air)
Theory of 4 Humours and Theory of opposites

What did Hippocrates and Galen contribute to medicine

Hippocrates- the Human body is made of 4 liquids: Blood, phlegm, yellow bile, black bile (The 4 Humours)

Galen- Humour imbalances are solved by using opposites such as too much phlegm (cold and wet) solved by eating peppers. This would cure illnesses as imbalances caused them

Why did people believe Hippocrates and Galen so much

Physicians were trained by reading books of them and the books were fairly detailed in their eyes
The theory of opposites seemed logical to balance the imbalances
People were not allowed to dissect so people could not prove them wrong

How did the Church influence medicine in the medieval period

The church owned all medical books so they controlled who had access to information
People could not challenge Galen and Hippocrates as they fit in with church ideas and questioning the church was illegal
Disease was a punishment from God and you made God angry so you have to pray to heal
Wanted everything to stay the same

How did Science and technology influence medicine in the medieval period

Lack of understanding so new knowledge was limited
Hindered creation of new theories
Tried to fit new ideas into old theories
Invention of printing press made knowledge spread much faster

How did the Attitudes in society influence medicine in the medieval period

Everyone very religious so they didn’t question the church
It was told you’d go to hell if you did
Didn’t want to challenge old ideas
Sense of fear stopped new ideas emerging

Characteristics of a physician in the medieval period

Trained at universities for atleast 7 years and read many books by Hippocrates and Galen
Would test urine and use their diagnosis book then consult patients. Also use astrological information
Only wealthy people could afford them
Didn’t actually treat the sick

Characteristics of a surgeon in the medieval period

The least qualified
Performed small surgeries on the outside, bloodletting, sewing up wounds etc
People with really bad injuries (broken limbs etc.) or wealthy people visited them
Actually performed surgeries and could set broken limbs
Very low success rates and no anesthetic so very painful

Characteristics of a apothecary in the medieval period

No medical training but learnt from each other
Mixed ingredients to make medicine for physicians and provided charms for patients
People who couldn’t afford physicians would visit
Cheaper than physicians but did same treatment
Some remedies worked but some didn’t

Characteristics of a housewife physicians in the medieval period

Couldn’t afford training.
Used traditional remedies, charms and spells
Could deal with broken bones and support women during childbirth
Visited by people who could not afford a trained physician
Church didn’t approve of them and they had little knowledge

Characteristics of hospitals in the medieval period

Hospitals kept very clean and tidy with everything being changed often
Lot of hospitals ran by the church where nuns and monasteries were in charge
Hospitals aimed to care for the sick not cure them.
1000 Hospitals by the year 1500

Characteristics of bloodletting

Most common treatment for Humour imbalance
Bad humours can be removed by bloodletting
Dying was not uncommon and the people responsible didn’t get punished
Mainly done by barber surgeons and housewives

Characteristics of Remedies

Usually herbal infusions to drink/sniff or bathe in
Some still used today
Based on theory of opposites
Ingredients could be difficult to find and expensive

What were the ways to prevent disease in medieval period (4 beliefs)

Religion- Leading a life free of sin, Prayer, pilgrimages, fasting and donating to the Church

Hygiene- Regimen Senitatis developed by Hippocrates and supported by Galen. Bathing in public or private baths. Washed hands before and after every meal

Diet- People didn’t eat too much, purged themselves by vomiting or using laxatives

Purifying the Air- stop miasma using sweet herbs, Made sure no rotten corpses on streets, and public toilets cleaned by local authorities

What was the black Death, 1348-49?

Black Death- an outbreak of the bubonic plague and had no cure. Carried in the digestive system of fleas carried by rats

What did people believe caused the Black Death (3 reasons)

Jews- However they were still in exile from Europe
Religion/Supernatural- Result of God abandoning mankind and the planets were positioned unusually
Impure air/Miasma- Breathing in miasma corrupted the 4 humours

How did people treat the Black Death (2 ways)

Religion/superstition- Pray and confess to your sins then repent. God willed for you to die and you should accept it

Natural- Physicians tried bloodletting and purging but people died quicker, recommended strong smelling herbs and lanced buboes which helped

How did people try prevent the Black death, 1348 (4 ways)

Religion- Prayer and fasting, whip yourself, go on pilgrimage and make offerings

Natural- Keep herbs to your nose to avoid miasma, don’t bathe as it opens skin pores

Other beliefs- Don’t visit family members with the plague, Do joyous things so you aren’t sad

Government actions- Quarantine laws imposed (travelers quarantined for 40 days), Banned preaching and religious ceremonies to avoid large gatherings, local authorities had little power so they couldn’t enforce laws

Why was there such little medical progress during medieval period

The church prevented new ideas from emerging and spreading
The work of individuals (Hippocrates and Galen) were difficult to challenge
The government did little to promote medical progress
Medical training was poor

How did the printing press improve medicine

Information was spread much quicker as it could print thousands of copies much faster than writing by hand.
Information was more accessible and not controlled by the Church.
Could now criticise old ideas

Who was Vesalius, and how did he impact medicine

Established the principle that Galen could be wrong
Proved that the human jaw bone was made of 1 bone not 2.
He also proved that blood did not pass from one side of the heart to the other through the septum.

Released Fabric of the Human Body in 1543- an extremely detailed and accurate guide for doctors on how the human body worked.

Who was William Harvey, and how did he impact medicine during the Renaissance

Proved that blood has one-way system of pumping blood around the body.
Blood isn’t made by the liver but rather pumped and recirculated

1628- published An Anatomical Account of the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals.
Proved that the heart acted like a pump and responsible for the recirculating of blood around the body

How did Sydenham influence medicine

Sydenham closely observed the symptoms and treating the disease causing them rather than treating each symptom individually. Developed a number of new treatments as a result
Laid down foundation of more scientific approach to medicine and believed doctors should devote time to identifying different diseases

What was the Royal Society?

Founded in 1660 due to scientists wanting to talk to each other about new discoveries.
Released the world’s first scientific journal which consisted of many summaries and observations
Scientists could share ideas and journal kept everything recorded

How did hospitals change in the Renaissance (3 changes)

Patients in hospitals were now visited by physicians
Many hospitals had their own pharmacies and apothecaries also specialist hospitals were set up
People arrested by London College of Physicians for practicing medicine without a license

Difference between Inoculation and Vaccination

Inoculation-Practice of introducing a small virus or bacteria through deliberate exposure such as scratching the skin

Vaccination- done through a vaccine which contains dead microorgansims to stimulate an immunity response

How did Edward Jenner develop the first vaccine?

Discovered that catching cowpox stops you from catching smallpox.
He rubbed pus that contained cowpox onto a small scratch.
James Phipps got sick for a few days with cowpox then healed.
Then he rubbed pus that contained smallpox yet James Phipps never caught smallpox.
He called this method vaccination

How did Nightingale impact nursing

Nursing became a well-respected profession and nurses took their job seriously
Now needed training and study qualifications to become a nurse
Mainly middle-class women now nurses, not lower class
Made the first nursing school

How did Nightingale impact hospitals in 19th century

Completely renovated how hospitals were built
Created wards to keep infectious people apart and avoid cross-contamination
More specialist departments
Hygiene the main focus and everything made using materials that are easier to clean

How did John Snow find out the cause of cholera

He mapped out all the deaths in a certain area
Found out there was a water pump in the centre of the map of deaths.
He realised people who died was due to the infected water pump but people who only drank beer survived.
He investigated the water pump and saw it was contaminated by open sewage.

What did Antoine Von Leeuwenhoek discover

Invented a better microscope and proceeded to investigate pond water with it. Saw tiny organisms in the pond water. First time humans had observed bacteria

How did Louis Pasteur discover Germ theory, 1861

He observed beer and predicted that liquids go bad due to germs spoiling it.
Boiled beer and saw it killed germs and stayed good.
Filled a flask with Paris air and one with sterile air.
Paris air decayed quickly showing microbes were in the air and led to decay

What was Germ theory and which other theories did Louis Pasteur disprove

Germ Theory stated that microorganisms invaded our body to cause disease.
It disproved the theory of miasma and Spontaneous generation

Short term impacts of Louis Pasteur’s Germ Theory

Little short term impact in Britain as he wasn’t a doctor so people didn’t believe him
Wasn’t linked to infection until 1878

How did Louis Pasteur make medicine progress

Cause- Found that microbes and bacteria spoil liquids. Found that microbes exist in the air and cause decay

Prevention- Developed vaccines in his lab, Made the first vaccine since smallpox (for rabies), Pasteurisation prevents people from getting sick

Treatment- Treating liquids by boiling liquids to kill germs

Used scientific method which made people believe in it more

How did Robert Koch make medicine progress in the 19th Century (Cause, Prevention and Treatment)

Cause- Found bacteria invading the body caused disease, Linked microbes to disease, disproved miasma and Spontaneous Generation

Prevention- Supported John Snow’s ideas using Germ Theory by proving cholera is from germ-infected water

Treatment- Identifying causes will lead to developments in treatment

What were the problems with surgery in the 18th Century

Infection- Surgeons operated in the same clothes they arrived in. They were not in a germ-free environment

Blood Loss- Surgeries had to be as quick as possible as patients often bled to death

Pain- patients fought and moved a lot due to excruciating pain, Often sent patients into shock

How was the problem of pain solved for surgeries

James Simpson discovered that chloroform can be used as anaesthetic so patients wouuld be asleep and not feel the pain. This allowed for more complex and deeper surgeries and doctors no longer had to rush.

Infections and blood loss became even bigger problems, leading to more deaths. Dose of chloroform had to be carefully controlled as it could kill you

How was the problem of infection in surgeries solved in 1865

Joseph Lister used carbolic acid as the first antiseptic.
Put it on wounds and found out that it killed germs and prevented infection.
Sprayed carbolic acid in the air to fight germs.
Infection rates dropped from 50-15%

Instruments were steam cleaned
Operating theatres scrubbed spotless
Rubber gloves and surgical gowns and face masks provided

What did the First Public Health Act contain

Passed in 1848- aimed to improve sanitary conditions of towns in England and Wales
Cities set up boards of health and clean water supplies
Not compulsory so didn’t have much impact on the health of people

What did the Second Public Health Act contain (1875)

1500 miles of sewers were built in London by 1865
This act was compulsory and set out these rules:
Provide clean water to stop disease
Disposing of sewage and building public toilets
Employing a public officer of health to monitor disease
Houses built of better quality

How can we use blood to diagnose disease

Blood tests- You can test positive for a number of conditions when they test you r blood

Blood sugar monitoring- Can predict your risk of contracting diabetes and allow you to maintain a healthy blood sugar

Blood pressure monitors- Diagnose high and low blood pressure

What are the types of scans you can use to diagnose disease

MRI scans- Diagnose soft tissue injuries such as ligament damage

CT scans- Can help identify brain damage, used to diagnose tumours and other growths in the body

Ultrasound scans- Can identify if your baby will have a disease before it is born. Can diagnose gall and kidney stones

X-rays- Diagnose fractures and broken bones

What is DNA and who discovered it

DNA carries genetic information from one living thing to another and determines characteristics
Discovered by Crick and Watson who found it present in every human cell and found that it is a double helix

Describe the process of how the first magic bullet was found

Paul Ehrlich tested over 600 arsenic compounds to find a cure for syphilis in 1907. Then in 1909 Japanese scientist Hata retested all compounds and found compound 606 cured syphilis. This was named “Salvarson 606”

What does prontosil do and how was it discovered

1932- Gerhard Domagk discovered Prontosil (red dye) killed bacterial infections in mice and cured daughters blood poisoning.
Mid 1930s- scientists discovered Prontosil prevents bacteria from multiplying in the body which allowed the immune system to kill it (bacteriostatic antibiotics.)

How was Penicillin discovered (1928)

Alexander Fleming noticed one of his petri dishes began to grow mold on accident.
This mold killed off harmful bacteria in the dish and was named penicillin.

How did Florey and Chain continue the work on penicillin

Tested penicillin on infected mice and was successful as it killed the infected mice. Penicillin also tested on a policeman with fatal blood poisoning and it fought the infection but there wasn’t enough to cure him so he died

How did the NHS, 1948 impact medicine (4 impacts)

Healthcare now free for everyone so working-class could live a better life as they used to be too poor for healthcare
Increased life expectancy
First free healthcare system
First time government listened to the poor end of society

What was healthcare like in the UK before the NHS

Many people were too poor to buy medicine or see a doctor so people remained ill.
This was especially prevalent during the early 1900s as many soldiers were turned away due to ill health

What led to the creation of the NHS (3 Reasons)

Voting- People who could vote demanded improved healthcare

WW2- People worked together so felt united so the rich felt pity towards the poor

Beveridge report, 1942- used so government to find out how people’s lives can be improved. The main thing was free healthcare.

How did the creation of the NHS transform medical care

Doctors and nurses got improved and better equipment
Many hospitals were rebuilt and more jobs available
Everyone could now see a doctor (before this 8 million people had never seen a doctor)

Properties of lung cancer

Third most common cancer in the UK and mainly affects people over the age of 40. Diagnosed highest among people aged 70-74
Caused by external factors. 85% of cases are people who smoke or have smoked
14% of cancers found in autopsy were lung cancer by 1927

How is lung cancer treated

Lung transplant
Radiotherapy- waves of radiation aimed at tumour to shrink it
Chemotherapy- Inject patients with many drugs to shrink tumour and prevent cancer
Genetic research- not possible to cure

How is lung cancer prevented (4 ways)

Ban on smoking in public places and cars and the legal age was increased from 16 to 18
Increased taxes on tobacco products
A ban on cigarette advertising entirely and many anti-smoking campaigns
All tobacco products removed from display in shops

What is the Human Genome project and what did it do

International effort to map and sequence all human DNA
Completed in 2003, unlocking insights into genetics and medicine.
It found out which genes cause some hereditary diseases