Ap Euro Unit 4: Absolutism and Constitutionalism

Social Hierarchy

The ranking of people into social classes based on wealth, status, or occupation in early modern European society

Moral economy

The belief that economic practices should be fair, traditional, and protect the community, espically during times of scarcity

Protestant Union

A military and political alliance formed by Protestant German states in 1608 to defend their religious and territorial interests

Catholic League

A coalition of Catholic German states created in 1609 to oppose the Protestant Union and preserve Catholic power

Gustavus Adolphus

The Swedish king who transformed Sweden into a major military power and entered the Thirty Years’ war to defend Protestant states

Cardinal Richelieu

The chief minister of France who strengthened royal power by weakening the nobility and opposing Habsburg influence in Europe

Albert of Wallenstein

A brilliant but ruthless Catholic military commander who led massive mercenary armies for the Holy Roman Emperor during the Thirty Years’ War

The Thirty Years’ War (1618 - 1648)

a major European conflict from 1618 to 1648 that began as a religious struggle between Protestants and Catholics in the Holy Roman Empire. It eventually expanded into a political power struggle involving many European states and ended with the Peace of Westphalia, which reshaped the balance of power in Europe.

Bohemian Phase (1618 - 1625) - Catholic

• Civil war in Bohemia between the Catholic league and the Protestant Union

• In 1620 Catholic forces defeated Protestants at the Battle of White Mountain

Danish Phase (1625 - 1629) - Catholic

• Protestant King Christian IV of Denmark tried to support Protestants but failed

• Catholic general Wallenstein dominated, leading to a strong Catholic/Habsburg victory

• Ended with the Edict of Restitution, which tried to restore Catholic lands

Swedish Phase (1630 - 1635) - Catholic

• Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden entered the war to defend Protestantism and stop Habsburg expansion

• Sweden won key battles and pushed back Catholic forces

• Turning Point: Adolphus died, Sweden weakened Habsburg momentum

French Phase (1635 - 1648) - Spanish

• Prompted by Richelieu’s concern that the Habsburg would rebound after the death of Gustavus Adolphus

• Declared war on Spain and sent military + financial assistance

Peace of Westphalia (1648)

The name of series of treaties that concluded the Thirty Years’ War in 1648 and marked the end of large-scale religious violence in Europe

Little Ice Age (17th century)

• A period of colder climate that reduced crop yields and caused famine

• Led to economic hardship, rising food prices, and increased social tensions

• Contributed to the rise of revolts and pressure on monarchs

Popular Revolts (Mid-17th century)

• Commonly caused by high taxes, food shortages, war costs, and anger at nobles

Ex: French Fronde. Russian Cossack revolts, English rebellions against high taxes

• showed that even absolute monarchs faced limits, people resisted when pushed too far

Absolutism

A form of government where the monarch has complete control over the state and its citizens

Divine right of kings

A doctrine that meant that God had established kings as his rulers on earth and that they were answerable to him alone; rulers had to obey God’s laws/rule for the good people

Edict of Nantes (1598)

A law issued by Henry IV of France that granted religious tolerance and civil rights to Huguenots, Ending the French Wars of Religion

• many Huguenots went to Dutch Republic —> brought skills, business, state repression to Enlightenment

Fronde (1648 - 1653)

A series of violent uprisings during the early reign of Louis XIV triggered by growing royal control and increased taxation

Intendents

Commissioners for each of France’s 32 districts who were appointed directly by the monarch

• carries out kings orders, collected taxes, enforced laws in provinces to strengthen central royal power

Mercantilism

A system of economic regulations aimed at increasing the power of the state based on the belief that a nation’s international power was based on its wealth, specially its supply of gold and silver

“Sun king”

Louis got the title to symbolize his central role in this divine order

Versailles

Grand palace built by King Louis XIV of France that became the royal court and symbol of absolute monarchy and royal power

Huguenots

French Protestants influenced by Calvinism who faced persecution by Catholic monarchs, espically under Louis XIV, leading many to flee France, weakening the economy

Henry IV (1589 - 1610)

Founder of Bourbon Dynasty in France, acquired a country by civil war between Protestants and Catholics, poor harvests, and diminished commercial activity

• helped France recover by: keeping France at peace

Cardinal Richelieu (1585 - 1642)

Became the first minister of the French Crown on behalf of Henry’s young son and wants to crush the Protestants in La Rochelle, Louis XIII

Cardinal Mazarin (1602 - 1661)

Succeeded Richelieu as chief minister for the next child-king, the 4 yr old Louis XIV, who inherited the throne from his father in 1643

• Mazarin’s struggle to increase royal revenues to meet the costs of war led to the uprisings of 1648 - 1653 Fronde

Louis XIV (1643 - 1715)

Longest reign in European history, the French monarchy reached the peak absolutism development

• Taught the doctrine of the divine right of kings

• Centralized power by weakening nobles, expanded intendants, controlled army, taxes, religion, law

• Revoked the Edict of Nantes, new law ordered Catholic baptism of Huguenots and harmed economy

• Built the palace of Versailles to display power and reduce political influence on nobles

• Fought expensive wars and left France in debt (War of Spanish Succession)

Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1619 - 1683)

• Louis’s controller general

• proved a financial genius, rigorously applying mercantilist policies in pursuit of his central principle that the wealth and the economy of France should serve the state

Francis le Tellier, Marquis de Louvois

• Central figure in building French absolutism through military power

• Louis’s Secretary of State for war

• Built the first, modern, professional standing army in Europe

• Centralized military power and reduced the influence of nobles, strengthened monarchy

• Developed military bureaucracy uniforms, supply systems

• Associated with dragonades (persecution of Huguenots) , shows Louis XIV’s religious intolerance

The Fronde (1648 - 1653)

Series of violent uprisings during the early reign of Louis XIV triggered by growing royal control and increased taxation

• Triggered by high taxes and centralization under Cardinal Mazarin

• Exposed the weakness and chaos caused by noble rebellion

• Traumatized young Louis XIV, convincing him nobles must be controlled and led him to rule as an absolute monarch

• Strengthened monarchy by defeating noble opposition

Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685)

• Louis hated division and insisted religious unity was essential to his royal dignity and to the security of the state

—> led to revocation of edict of Nantes

• New law ordered Catholic baptism of Huguenots, the destruction of Huguenot churches, closing of schools, exile of Huguenot pastors who refused to change their faith

War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1713)

• The will violated a prior treaty which European powers had arrived to divide the Spanish possessions between the king of France and the Holy Roman Emperor

• Louis claimed he was following both Spanish and French interests which he broke with the treaty and accepted the will —> triggering the War of Succession

• English, Dutch, Austrians and Prussians formed the Grand Alliance against Louis XIV

• Dragged on and exhausted France economically

Peace of Utrecht (1713)

A series of treaties from 1713-1715, that ended the war of the Spanish succession, ended French expansion in Europe, marked the rise of the British Empire

• Allowed Louis’s grandson Phillip to remain king of Spain, French and Spanish crowns could never be united

• British gained Nova Scotia, New Foundland, Hudson Bay, Gibraltar, Mincora, and control of the African slave trade from Spain

• Represented balance of power principle

• Marked the end of French expansion

Junkers

Prussian landowning nobles who supported the monarchy in exchange for control over power serfs and became the core of the Prussian military officer class

Bohemian Estates

Representative assemblies of nobles, clergy, and terms in Bohemia that traditionally held political power until Habsburg crushed their autonomy after The Thirty Years’ War

Habsburg

A powerful European royal dynasty that ruled large territories, known fro their use of strategic marriages to expand influence rather than military conquest

Ottomans

A Muslim empire center in modern day Turkey that expanded into South Eastern Europe, Middle East, North Africa, playing a major rule in European policies during early modern

Prussian Absolutism

A form of absolute monarchy in Prussia where the king held centralized control under the state, relied on strong military, maintained obedience of Junkers to strengthen monarchy

Conscription

An idea that a gov can draft you into the army

Ferdinand II (1619-1637)

Holy Roman Emperor who sought to strengthen Catholicism and imperial authority, triggering the Thirty Years’ War by enforcing religious uniformity in his territories

Ferdinand III (1637-1657)

Holy Roman Emperor who continued Habsburg efforts during the Thirty Years’ War and helped negotiate the Peace of Westphalia, ended the war and limited imperial power

Prince Francis Rakoczy

Hungarian that led the rebellion against Habsburg (fails)

• many did not like Habsburg rule

Fredrick William, “The Great Elector” (1640-1688)

Elections Bradenburg, who strengthened the state through a centralized bureaucracy, a strong army, and alliances with the nobility, laying the foundation for Prussian absolutism

Fredrick William I, the “Soldier’s King” (1713-1740)

Completed his grandfather’s work, eliminated the last traces of parliamentary estates and local self-government

Hungarian revolt (1703)

• Caused by many taxation, loss of noble autonomy, and resentment over Habsburg centralization

• Unsuccessful, pushed the Habsburg to more autonomy and recognize noble privileges

Habsburg Defeat of The Ottomans (1683-1699)

• After the failed Ottoman siege of Vienna (1683), the Habsburgs and their allies pushed the Ottomans back.

• Ended with the Treaty of Karlowitz (1699), which transferred large portions of Hungary, Transylvania, and Croatia to Habsburg rule.

• Marked the beginning of Habsburg dominance in Eastern Europe.

Fredrick William’s Taxation and Military expansion (1660)

• Frederick William (“Great Elector”) secured permission from the Junkers to collect permanent taxes without approval from the Estates.

• Used this stable revenue to build a strong standing army.

• This centralized the state and reduced the power of regional assemblies.

Kievan Rus

The medieval slave state centered first at Novgorod and then at Kiev, a city on the Dnieper River, which included most of present-day Ukraine, Belarus, and part of the northwest Russia

Boyars

The highest ranking members of Russian nobility

Tsar

The title used by Russian rulers, meaning “emperor,” who held absolute power over the state and were seen as both political and religious leaders.

Cosssacks

Free groups and outlaw armies originally comprising runaway peasants living on the borders of Russian territory from the 14th century onward. By the end of 16th century, formed an alliance with the Russian state

Service nobility

Created by Ivan, whose loyalty be guaranteed with titles and land seized from the boyars

Millet system

A system used by the ottomans whereby subjects were divided into religious communities, with each millet(nation) enjoying autonomous self-gov under its religious leaders

• Each millet collected taxes for the state, regulated group behavior, and maintained law courts

Janissary Corps

the core of the sultans army, composed of slave conscripts from non-Muslim parts of the empire

• After 1683, it became a volunteer force, gave advantage in war against Europeans

Sultan

The ruler of the Ottoman Empire, he owned all the agricultural land of the empire and was served by an army and bureaucracy composed of highly-trained slaves

Concubine

a woman who lives with a man and has a recognized sexual relationship with him without being his legal wife. In many historical societies, concubines had lower status than wives but were still part of a ruler’s or nobleman’s household.

Times of Troubles

A chaotic period in Russia (1598–1613) marked by famine, civil war, and political instability after the end of the Rurik dynasty, ending only when the Romanov family was chosen to rule.

Ivan III (Ivan the Great)

Successfully expanded the principality of Moscow, felt strong enough to defy Mongol control and declare the autonomy of Moscow

Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible)

The first Russian ruler to take the title of tsar; he centralized royal power through harsh policies, expanded Russian territory, and ruled with extreme violence during his later “oprichnina” period.

Michael Romanov

The first tsar of the Romanov dynasty (elected in 1613) who restored stability to Russia after the Time of Troubles and rebuilt the state through cooperation with nobles and the church.

Peter the Great

Tsar of Russia (1682–1725) who modernized and westernized the country by reforming the military, government, and society, transforming Russia into a major European power.

Suleiman the Magnificent

The most powerful Ottoman sultan (r. 1520–1566) who expanded the empire to its greatest territorial extent and strengthened its legal, military, and cultural achievements.

Charles XII of Sweden

The warrior-king of Sweden (r. 1697–1718) known for his military skill during the Great Northern War, whose costly campaigns ultimately weakened Sweden’s status as a major European power.

Constitutionalism

A form of gov in which power is limited by law and balanced between the authority and power of the gov, on the one hand, and the rights and liberties of the subjects or citizens on the other hand; could include constitutional monarchies or republics

Constitutional monarchy

• Gov where monarchs power is limited by a constitution/laws

• Monarch shares (Parliament) with republic body

• Power is limited by a opposite of absolutism

  Ex: Gloris Revolution under William & Mary

Republic

A state in which power rested in the hands of the people and was exercised through elected representatives

Divine right of kings

The belief that a monarch’s authority comes directly from God’s making them accountable only to God, not to their subjects/parliament

Puritans

Members of 16th and 17th century reform movement with the Church of England that advocated purifying it of Roman Catholic elements like bishops, elaborate commercials, and wedding rings

New Model Army

A disciplined, professional army formed by Parliamentarians during the English civil war (1645), organized by merit rather than social status, loyal to Parliament rather than individual leaders

Protectorate

The English military dictatorship (1653-1658), established by Oliver Cromwell following the execution of Charles I

Instrument of Gov

Invested executive power in a lord protection (Cromwell) and a council of state

• provided triennial parliaments and gave Parliament the power of raise taxes

• never fully endorsed

Test Act of 1673

Legislation passed by the English parliament in 1673, to secure the position of the Anglican Church by stripping puritans, Catholics, and other dissenters of the right to vote, preach, assemble, hold public office, and teach at/attend universities

Glorious Revoltuion

A bloodiness overthrow of king James II of England replaced by William & Mary.

• established a constitutional monarchy, limiting royal power and strengthened through Eng Bill of Rights

• Parliament’s authority through Eng Bill of Rights marked the end of absolutism in England

Stadholder

The executive officer in each of the United provinces of the Netherlands, a position often held by the princes of Orange

• responsible for military defense and ceremonial functions

James I (1603-1625)

• Ruled England from 1603–1625, first monarch of the Stuart dynasty

• Believed in the divine right of kings — that his power came directly from God

• Clashed with Parliament over taxes, spending, and royal authority

• Tried to increase royal power, moving toward absolutism

• Maintained peace by avoiding major wars, but angered nobles who wanted glory and profit

• Authorized the King James Bible (1611), an important cultural achievement

• His conflicts with Parliament laid the foundation for the English Civil War under his son, Charles I

Charles I (1625-1649)

• Ruled 1625–1649, son of James I

• Believed in divine right of kings

• Clashed with Parliament over taxes and power

• Ruled without Parliament (Personal Rule, 1629–1640)

• Tried to impose Anglicanism on Scotland, causing rebellion

• Led to the English Civil War (1642–1649)

• Executed for treason, ending the monarchy temporarily

Oliver Cromwell

• Leader of Parliament’s forces in the English Civil War

• Established a military dictatorship called the Commonwealth (1649–1658)

• Ruled as Lord Protector after Charles I’s execution

• Puritan who imposed strict moral laws

• Crushed Irish and Scottish revolts brutally

• His rule showed the failure of republican government in England

Charles II (1660-1685)

• The Restoration restored the monarchy, the Church of England and the Parliament

• The central issues conflicting the relationships between King & Parliament, conflict over religion remained unsolved

James II (1685-1688)

• Opposed Whigs, inherited throne

• Adopted polices that antagonized Whigs & Tories

• Wanted England —> Protestantism, appointed Catholics to power

• James 2nd wife gave birth to a son as the next heir to throne

William III of Orange & Mary II

• William III of Orange (ruled 1689–1702) and Mary II (ruled 1689–1694) were joint monarchs of England after the Glorious Revolution.

• They replaced James II to prevent a return to Catholic absolutism.

• Both accepted the English Bill of Rights (1689), limiting royal power and ensuring Parliament’s supremacy.

• Their reign marked the beginning of constitutional monarchy in England.

John Locke

• was an English Enlightenment philosopher.

• Believed in natural rights — life, liberty, and property.

• Argued that governments exist to protect these rights.

• Said people can overthrow a government that violates their rights.

• His ideas strongly influenced the Glorious Revolution and later democratic revolutions (like the American Revolution).

Thomas Hobbes

• Pessimestic view of human nature would change for power and wealth

• Outlined treatise Leviathan

• Imagined society as a human body in which the monarch served as a head and individual subjects together made up the body