Socialization, Identity, and Research Methods in Sociology

Socialisation

The process of learning and internalizing the norms and values of a culture.

Culture

The way of life of a particular group of people, taught and learnt through socialization.

Roles

Expected patterns of behavior associated with each position that we hold, such as being a friend, student or teacher.

Norms

Socially acceptable ways of behaving in different roles.

Values

Beliefs or ideas that are important to the people who hold them.

Customs

Established and accepted cultural practices and behaviors.

Ideology

A set of ideas and ideals which explains how society works or should work.

Primary Socialization

The first stage of socialization that occurs mainly within the family.

Secondary Socialization

Socialization that occurs through agencies like schools, religious organizations, and the media.

Agencies of Socialization

Institutions that influence socialization, including family, education, peer groups, media, and religion.

Social Control

The mechanisms that limit the range of behaviors open to individuals.

Conformity

The act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms.

Deviance

Behavior that violates social norms.

Subcultures

Groups with different values within complex societies.

Marginalization

Individuals and groups pushed to the fringes of society, economically and politically.

Cultural Deprivation

Lacking attitudes and values necessary for success.

Resistance

Expressing anger and resentment through deviant behavior.

Globalization

The process by which businesses or other organizations develop international influence or start operating on an international scale.

Primary Data

Data collected by the researcher.

Secondary Data

Data that already exists.

Quantitative Research

Research that involves numerical data.

Qualitative Research

Research that captures the quality of behavior.

Official Statistics

Data collected and published by governmental agencies.

Personal Documents

First-hand accounts or records created by individuals.

Digital Content

Information that is created, shared, and consumed in digital formats.

Media Sources

Various platforms through which information is communicated to the public.

Social Pressure

The influence exerted by a group that encourages individuals to change their attitudes, values, or behaviors to conform to group norms.

Self-interest

The personal gain that individuals seek in their actions.

Social Exchange

A theory that suggests social behavior is the result of an exchange process to maximize benefits and minimize costs.

Dominant Ideologies

Widely accepted beliefs that are imposed by powerful groups.

Functionalists

Sociologists who believe that social order is maintained through consensus.

Marxists

Sociologists who argue that social order is imposed by the ruling class.

Personal Documents, Digital Content, and Media Sources

Strengths: access to difficult data, secondary data, comparative analysis, depth and detail, literal and hidden meanings; Limitations: availability, authenticity, digital changes, incompleteness, inaccuracy, unreliability.

Questionnaires

Strengths: easy to quantify, reliable, anonymous; Limitations: low response rate, biased questions.

Structured Interviews

Strengths: reliable, avoids bias; Limitations: assumptions, lack of anonymity.

Experiments

Strengths: establishes causation, powerful; Limitations: difficult to control, Hawthorne effect.

Content Analysis

Strengths: identifies themes, quantifiable; Limitations: subjective judgments, limited scope.

Qualitative Research Methods - Interviews

Flexible, in-depth, but difficult to analyze.

Qualitative Research Methods - Observation

In-depth, but raises ethical concerns.

Unstructured Interviews

Set of pre planned questions asked to participants; Strengths: accurate, detailed, in-depth, flexible; Limitations: time-consuming, difficult to analyze, low reliability, biased.

Semi-Structured Interviews

No pre planned questions asked to participants; Strengths: flexible, in-depth, open-ended; Limitations: time-consuming, difficult to analyze, low reliability, biased.

Group Interviews

A group of people interviewed together; Strengths: realistic, interactive, insightful; Limitations: difficult to control, biased, dominant individuals.

Observation

Strengths: valid, natural setting, detailed; Limitations: difficult to record, ethical concerns, biased.

Participant Observation

Strengths: detailed, empathetic, experiential; Limitations: difficult to separate roles, biased, ethical concerns.

Non-Participant Observation

Strengths: objective, natural setting, quantitative data; Limitations: difficult to replicate, lacks depth, ethical concerns.

Research Design

Four linked stages: planning, information gathering, information processing, and evaluation.

Planning (Research Design)

Decide on strategy, research hypotheses or questions, and sampling frame.

Information Gathering (Research Design)

Collect data from a sample, may use pilot study.

Information Processing (Research Design)

Analyze and interpret data.

Evaluation (Research Design)

Internal and external analysis, report findings and limitations.

Research Problem

Initial stage of research design; Decide on topic, review previous research, and develop research hypothesis or question.

Sampling

Identify target population and sample; Sampling frame: list of everyone in target population; Sampling techniques: random, systematic, stratified random, stratified quota, opportunity; Pilot studies: test feasibility and research methods.

Operationalisation

Make decisions about how to put ideas and concepts into practice; Example: operationalizing social class by asking about occupation or income.

Interpreting Results

Analyze and interpret data; Look for common themes and trends; Present findings, conclusions, limitations, and suggestions for further research.

Case Studies

In-depth info, cost-effective; Hard to generalize, demanding.

Social Surveys

Snapshot of behavior; Descriptive, illustrative, analytic.

Ethnography

In-depth understanding; Participant observation, qualitative docs.

Longitudinal Studies

Track changes over time; Identify changes, trends, correlations; Sample attrition, lack of depth.

Methodological Pluralism

Uses multiple research methods; Combines quantitative and qualitative data; Offsets weaknesses of one method with strengths of another.

Triangulation

Improves research reliability and validity; Types: methodological, researcher, data.

Positivism

Natural science approach, objective.

Interpretivism

Understanding meanings, qualitative methods, open about values.

Validity

How true to life research findings are.

Reliability

How consistent research data is; Improved by standardizing approaches.

Objectivity

Making objective statements about behavior; Detachment and avoiding influence.

Representativeness

How well findings apply to a larger population; Requires an accurate cross-section sample.

Ethical Considerations

Ethical issues relate to morality; Considerations include legal issues, safety, informed consent, anonymity, trust, and avoiding harm.