Key Terms in Indian History and Philosophy

Aryan

A group of Indo-European nomadic people who are believed to have migrated to the Indian subcontinent around 1500 BCE.

Dravidian

Refers to the linguistic and ethnic group native to southern India and parts of Sri Lanka.

Indus Valley Civilization

An ancient civilization that flourished in the Indus River basin, known for advanced urban planning and architecture.

Mohenjodaro

An archaeological site in present-day Pakistan, part of the Indus Valley Civilization.

Harappa

Another major site of the Indus Valley Civilization located in present-day Pakistan.

Pashupati Seal

An artifact from the Indus Valley Civilization depicting a figure seated in a yogic posture, associated with proto-Shiva.

Veda

A large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Includes Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, Atharva Veda.

Sanskrit

An ancient Indo-European language of India, in which many Hindu texts are written.

Shruti

Texts that are considered to have been heard or divinely revealed, such as the Vedas.

Smriti

Hindu texts that are considered to be remembered or written by sages, such as the Mahabharata.

Aranyakas

Ancient Indian texts that are a part of the Vedas, dealing with the philosophy behind rituals.

Brahmanas

Prose texts that explain the hymns of the Vedas and provide instructions for rituals.

Samhitas

Collections of hymns, mantras, and chants that are part of the Vedas.

Upanishads

Philosophical texts that explore the nature of reality and the concept of Brahman (universal soul).

Agni

The Hindu god of fire and an important deity in Vedic rituals.

Indra

A major deity in the Vedas, often considered the king of the gods and god of thunder and war.

Vedanta

A school of Hindu philosophy that is based on the teachings of the Upanishads.

Buddhism

A religion founded by Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) that teaches the path to enlightenment through the Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Path.

Jainism

An ancient Indian religion that teaches non-violence and reverence for all living beings.

Gautama/Siddhartha/Buddha

The founder of Buddhism, also known as Siddhartha Gautama or the Buddha.

Three Jewels

The foundational tenets of Buddhism: the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha.

Four Noble Truths

The core teachings of Buddhism, which outline the nature of suffering and the path to overcoming it.

Eight Fold Path

A key part of Buddhist practice that provides a path for ethical and mental development.

Theravada/Hinayana

A branch of Buddhism that emphasizes personal enlightenment and adherence to the original teachings of the Buddha.

Mahayana

A branch of Buddhism that focuses on the path of the Bodhisattva and helping others achieve enlightenment.

Boddhisattva

In Mahayana Buddhism, a person who delays their own enlightenment to help others.

Tirthankara

A spiritual teacher in Jainism who has achieved enlightenment and serves as a guide for others.

Mahavira

The 24th Tirthankara in Jainism and a key figure in its teachings.

Parshvanath

The 23rd Tirthankara in Jainism.

Rishabha

The first Tirthankara in Jainism.

Srivatsa

A symbol associated with the Jain Tirthankaras and often depicted on their chests.

Digambara

One of the two main sects of Jainism, which practices asceticism and nudity as a path to liberation.

Svetambara

The other main sect of Jainism, which allows monks to wear white robes.

Karma

The Hindu and Buddhist concept of actions affecting one's future life and reincarnations.

Dharma

A key concept in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism representing duty, law, or universal order.

Moksa

The liberation from the cycle of rebirth in Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist beliefs.

Nirvana

The ultimate goal in Buddhism, representing freedom from suffering and the cycle of rebirth.

Atman

The concept of an eternal soul or self in Hindu philosophy.

Jiva

In Jainism, the term for the individual soul or life essence.

Anatman

The Buddhist doctrine of 'no-self,' rejecting the concept of an eternal soul.

Samsara

The cycle of birth, death, and rebirth in Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist beliefs.

Ashoka

An ancient Indian emperor of the Maurya Dynasty who converted to Buddhism and promoted peace and welfare.

Kalinga War

A significant battle in Ashoka's reign that led to his conversion to Buddhism.

Mauryan Empire

An ancient Indian empire founded by Chandragupta Maurya and expanded by Ashoka.

Mahajanapadas

The 16 large states that existed in ancient India prior to the rise of the Mauryan Empire.

Caste

A traditional social stratification system in India, which divides people into hierarchical groups.

Jati

Sub-categories within the larger caste system in India, often based on occupation.

Varna

The fourfold caste classification in Hindu society: Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Sudra.

Dalit

A term used for communities that fall outside the traditional caste system, historically oppressed and marginalized.

Sudra

The lowest caste in the Varna system, traditionally composed of laborers.

Vaishya

A caste in the Varna system, traditionally composed of merchants and traders.

Kshatriya

A caste in the Varna system, traditionally composed of warriors and rulers.

Brahmin

The highest caste in the Varna system, traditionally priests and scholars.

Varnashrama

The division of Hindu life into four stages: Brahmacharya, Grishasta, Vanaprastha, and Sanyasa.

Bramhacarya

The first stage in Hindu life, focusing on education and celibacy.

Grishasta

The second stage in Hindu life, representing household life.

Vanaprastha

The third stage in Hindu life, representing a retreat from active social life.

Sanyasa

The final stage in Hindu life, representing renunciation of material desires.

Gupta Empire

An ancient Indian empire known as a golden age of arts, science, and literature in India.

Bhakti

A devotional form of worship in Hinduism emphasizing a personal connection with deities.

Mirabai

A 16th-century Hindu mystic and poet, known for her devotion to Krishna.

Kabir

A 15th-century Indian poet and saint whose teachings transcended Hinduism and Islam.

Ravidas

A 15th-century Indian poet-saint known for his spiritual songs and teachings on equality.

Surdas

A 15th-century devotional poet known for his songs dedicated to Krishna.

Mahabharata

An ancient Indian epic that narrates the story of the Kurukshetra War and includes the Bhagavad Gita.

Arjuna

A central character in the Mahabharata, one of the Pandava princes.

Krishna

A major deity in Hinduism, known as the charioteer of Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita.

Pandavas

The five brothers in the Mahabharata who fought the Kauravas in the Kurukshetra War.

Kauravas

The cousins and rivals of the Pandavas in the Mahabharata.

Bhagavad Gita

A sacred Hindu text that is part of the Mahabharata, focusing on Krishna's teachings to Arjuna.

Ramayana

An ancient Indian epic that narrates the life of Rama, his wife Sita, and his battle with the demon king Ravana.

Sita

The wife of Rama in the Ramayana, considered an ideal figure of virtue in Hinduism.

Rama

A major deity in Hinduism and the hero of the Ramayana.

Lakshmana

The younger brother of Rama who accompanies him in the Ramayana.

Ravana

The demon king of Lanka in the Ramayana, defeated by Rama.

Hanuman

A devoted follower of Rama, known for his strength and devotion in the Ramayana.

Bharatanatyam

A classical Indian dance form originating in Tamil Nadu.

Natya Sastra

An ancient Indian treatise on the performing arts, including music, dance, and drama.

Devadasi

Women who were traditionally dedicated to temple service in southern India.

Malik Ambar

An Ethiopian military leader who rose to power in India and was a regent of the Ahmadnagar Sultanate.

Bijapur Sultanate

A Deccan sultanate in southwestern India known for its architectural achievements and cultural contributions.

Ahmednagar Sultanate

A Deccan sultanate located in western India, notable for its resistance against the Mughals.

Bidar

A city in Karnataka, India, historically significant as the capital of the Bahmani Sultanate.

Golkonda

A fortified citadel and city in southern India, renowned for its diamond trade and historical significance.

Vijayangara

An empire in southern India known for its prosperity, architecture, and patronage of arts.

Harihara/Bukka

Founders of the Vijayanagara Empire in the 14th century.

Slave Dynasties

A dynasty in India, established by former slaves who rose to power, such as the Mamluk dynasty in Delhi.

Tughlaqs

A medieval Indian dynasty that ruled the Delhi Sultanate, known for administrative reforms and economic policies.

Iltutmish

The third ruler of the Delhi Sultanate and a significant figure in establishing the sultanate's administration.

Mughal Empire

A prominent Indian empire founded by Babur, known for its architecture, culture, and influence on Indian history.

Babur

The founder of the Mughal Empire in India and a descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan.

Humayun

The second emperor of the Mughal Empire, known for his exile and later return to reclaim the throne.

Akbar

The third Mughal emperor, known for his policies of religious tolerance and administrative reforms.

Salim/Jahangir

The fourth Mughal emperor, known for his patronage of the arts and conflict with the Sikh community.

Noor Jehan

The wife of Mughal Emperor Jahangir and a powerful political figure in his court.

Shah Jhan

The fifth Mughal emperor, known for commissioning the Taj Mahal in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal.

Mumtaz

The wife of Shah Jahan, for whom the Taj Mahal was built.

Aurangzeb

The sixth Mughal emperor, known for his conservative policies and expansion of the empire.

Marathas

A warrior group from western India who established a powerful empire challenging the Mughals.

Mahmud of Ghazni

A ruler from Central Asia known for his invasions into the Indian subcontinent in the 11th century.