AP Psychology Full Review

Biological Perspective

Psychological perspective which emphasizes the brain, genes, and nervous system

Psychodynamic Perspective

Psychological perspective which emphasizes unconscious drives and early experiences

Behavioral Perspective

Psychological perspective which emphasizes observable behavior shaped by environment

Cognitive Perspective

Psychological perspective which emphasizes mental processes - thinking, memory, perception

Humanistic Perspective

Psychological perspective which emphasizes free will and human potential

Sociocultural Perspective

Psychological perspective which emphasizes culture and social context shape behavior

Evolutionary Perspective

Psychological perspective which emphasizes behavior as adaptive survival strategies

Independent Variabnle

What the researcher intentionally changes

Dependent Variable

What the researcher measures

Confounding Variable

Uncontrolled factor that may affect the dependent variable

Control Group

Receives no treatment; baseline for comparison

Experimental Group

Receives the treatment/manipulation

Random Assignment

Randomly placing participants into groups to reduce bias

Case Study

In-depth investigation of one individual or group

Correlational Research

Measures relationship between two variables

Correlation Coefficient

Direction and strength of relationship (-1 to +1)

Meta-Analysis

Statistical review combining multiple studies

Naturalistic Observation

Studying behavior in a real-world setting

Survey

Self-report data; sibject to social desirability bias

Placebo

Inactive treatment given to control group

Single-Blind Procudure

Only participants don’t know which treatment they received

Double-Blind Procedure

Neither participants nor researchers know who received which treatment

Operational Definition

Precise, measurable description of a variable

Replication

Repeating a study to verify results

Hypothesis

Testable, falsifiable prediction

Quantitative Data

Numerical measures

Qualitative Data

Descriptive, non-numerical data

Random Sampling

Every member of popluation has equal chance to be selected into a sample(generalizable)

Convenience Sampling

Uses an easily available group (may produce sampling bias)

Sampling Bias

Sample does not represent the population

Self-Report Bias

Inaccurate responses due to social desirability

Social Desirability Bias

Participants answer to look favorable, not truthfully

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Ethics board reviews studies before they are conducted

Informed consent

Adults voluntarily agree to participate after being informed

Informed Assent

Minors agree to participate (parents provide consent)

Debriefing

Full explanation given after study, especially after description

Confidentiality

Participant data is kept private

Protection from Harm

Physical and psychological risks must be minimized

Confederate

Person in on the study who pretends to be a participant

Mean

Average of all scores

Median

Middle score; best with skewed data

Mode

Most frequent score

Range

Highest minus lowest score

Standard Deviation

Average distance of scores from mean

Normal Curve

Bell-shaped; mean=median=mode

Positive Skew

Tail pulls right toward high scores; most scores are low

Negative Skew

Tail pulls left toward low scores; most scores are high

Bimodal

Two distinct peaks in the distribution

Percentile Rank

% of scores at or below a score

Regression to Mean

Extreme scores tend to move closer to average on retest

Effect Size

Measures the strength/magnitude of a relationship

Statistical Significance

Results unlikely due to chance (p < 0.05)

Nature (Heredity)

Genetic/predisposed traits that influence behavior and mental processes

Key Takeaway in Nature vs. Nurture

It’s not nature OR nurture - it’s nature AND nurture interacting

Evolutionary Perspective

Natural selection shapes behavior to increase survival

Nurture (Environment)

External experiences that shape who we are

Twin/Adoption Studies

used to understand genetic vs. environmental influencesEu

Eugenics

Discredited belief in selective breeding for “desirable” traits

Brain

Processes and interprets information; controls all body function

Spinal Cord

Relays messages between brain and body; enables reflexes

Somatic Nervous System

Controls voluntary movements

Autonomic Nervous System

Controls involuntary processes

Sympathetic Nervous System

Fight-or-flight response; increases heart rate, dilates pupils

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Rest-and-digest; clams body, returns to homeostais

Glial Cells

Support and protect neurons; does NOT trasnmit information

Neurons

Neural cells that transmit information throughout the body

Reflex Arc

Nerve pathway allowing response to stimulus without thinking

Presynaptic Neuron

Sending neuron; releases neurotransmitters into synapse

Postsynaptic Neuron

receiving neuron; has receptor sites for neurotransmitters

Synapse

Gap between neurons where neurotransmitters are released

Sensory Neurons (Afferent)

Bring information IN from body to CNS

Motor Neurons (Efferent)

Send information OUT from CNS to muscles

Interneurons

Connect sensory to motor neurons within the CNS

All-or-None Principle

A neuron either fires completely or doesn’t fire at all

Depolarization

When the neuron fires an action potential

Resting Potential

Neuron’s baseline state when not firing

Threshold

Minimum stimulation needed to trigger firing

Refractory Period

Reset period before neuron can fire again

Reuptake

Excess neurotransmitters reabsorbed by sending neuron

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Increases likeliehood a neuron will fire an action potential

Inhibitory Neurotransmitter

Decreases likelihood a neuron will fire an action potential

Dopamine

LInked to reward, motivation, and movement

Serotonin

Mood regulation, sleep, and appetite

Acetylcholine

Muscle movement and memory; linked to Alzheimer’s

Norepinephrine

Alertness to arousal; involved in fight-or-flight

GABA

Major inhibitory NT; calms neural activity

Glutamate

Major excitatory NT, involved in learning and memory

Endorphine

Natural painkillers, linked to runner’s high

Hormones

Chemical messengers via bloodstream; slower but longer lasting than NTs

Pituitary Gland

“Master Gland” - Big daddy of the endocrine system (hormones)

Agonistic Drugs

Increases a neurotransmitter’s effects

Antagonistic Drugs

Block a neurotransmitter’s effects

Reuptake Inhibitors

Prevent reabsorption, leaving more neurotransmitters in the synapse

Tolerance

Need more of a drug to acheive the same effect

Withdrawl

Symptoms when addicted person stops using substances

Stimulants

Increase neural activity

Depressants

Decrease neural activity

Hallucinogens

Distort perception and cognition

Opioids

Act as pain relievers

Brain Stem

Controls basic life functions: breathing and heart rate