Philosophy of Religion - The Ontological Argument

Define Deductive Argument (3)

A deductive argument is based upon a priori knowledge. The conclusion is directly implied by the premises. If the premises are true and the structure is valid, then the conclusion must be true.

Describe The Ontological Arguments (3)

This argument uses a priori reasoning. Ontological argument aims to deduce God's existence from the definition of God. Proponents of ontological arguments claim 'God exists' is an analytic truth.

Outline Anselm's Ontological Argument (3)

1) By definition, God is a being greater than which cannot be conceived.

2) We can coherently conceive of such a being i.e. the concept is coherent.

3) It is greater to exist in reality than to exist only in the mind.

4) Therefore, God must exist

Summarise Descartes' Ontological Argument (3)

1) I have the idea of God as a supremely perfect being.

2) A supremely perfect being does not lack any perfection and existence is a perfection.

3) Therefore, God exists.

Briefly Outline Anselm's Ontological Argument (5)

1) God is 'greater than which no greater can be conceived'.

2) If God exists in the mind alone then a greater being could be imagined to exist in both mind and reality.

3) This being would be greater than God.

4) Therefore, God cannot exist only as an idea in the mind alone.

*Key Idea: Existence in reality is greater than existence in the mind alone.

5) It is greater to be a necessary being(cannot not be) than a contingent being (can cease to exist).

6) If God exists only as a contingent being then we could imagine a being that was necessary.

7) This being would be greater than God (which is impossible).

8) Therefore, God is a necessary being.

*Key Idea: necessary existence is greater than contingent existence.

Outline Anselm's Ontological Argument (12)

Anselm defines God as a being 'greater than which no greater can be conceived'. This means that any attribute or characteristic that is thinkable, and would make God greater, is rightly part of God. For example, a conceivable attribute of something is 'omnipotence' and to decide whether this is an attribute of God we need to wonder "Would God be greater is He was Omnipotent or not?". The likely answer we would come to is that God would be greater if He was omnipotent. Therefore, for God to be the greatest conceivable being, He must be omnipotent. Anselm called these great-making qualities, 'perfections'.

Anselm then applies this to existence, "would God be greater if he existed on reality or in the mind alone?" Anselm says God would be greater if he existed in reality. Therefore, God cannot exist only as an idea in the mind alone because existence in reality is greater than existence in the mind alone. Therefore, God exists.

He then applies this to whether it is better that God could be conceived not to exist or whether it is inconceivable that God could not exist. Anselm claims it is greater to be a necessary being, which cannot be conceived to not exist, than a contingent being, which we can conceive not to exist.

Therefore, God is a necessary being because necessary existence is greater than contingent existence.

Outline Gaunilo's Perfect Island Objection (5)

1) Gaunilo claims that if Anselm's argument is valid, then anything can be defined into existence.

2) The perfect island is, by definition, an island greater than which cannot be conceived.

3) We can coherently conceive of such an island i.e. the concept is coherent.

4) It is greater to exist in reality than to exist only in the mind.

5) Therefore, this island must exist.

6) The conclusion of this argument is obviously false as Gaunilo is using a type of argument called reductio ad absurdum - reducing the argument to absurdity.

7) He claims that there must be some sort of an empirical proof that the island (and God) exist. It is not possible to decide from a definition of God that God exists.

Outline Descartes' Ontological Argument (5)

1) We can conceive of a triangle as having the properties of a three-sided shape with internal angles of 180°.

2) This is known simply by analysing the word 'triangle'.

3) We can conceive of God as having the properties of a supremely perfect being.

4) This is known simply by analysing the term 'God'.

5) If God is the supremely perfect being then existence must be one of his attributes as he could not lack the perfection of existence. "From the fact that I cannot conceive of God without existence, it follows that existence is inseparable from Him, and hence that He really exists".

6) Existence is part of God's essence.

7) Therefore, we can infer that God exists from the definition of God.

Outline Descartes' Ontological Argument (12)

We can conceive of a triangle as having the properties of a three-sided shape with internal angles of 180°. This is known simply by analysing the word 'triangle'. It is known a priori. Similarly, We can conceive of God as having the properties of a supremely perfect being. This is known simply by analysing the term 'God'.

If God is the supremely perfect being then existence must be one of his attributes as he could not lack the perfection of existence. Existence is a necessary property of a supremely perfect being. Descartes says, "From the fact that I cannot conceive of God without existence, it follows that existence is inseparable from Him, and hence that He really exists". This means existence is part of God's essence. Essence is something fundamental to what something is, so just like three angles being part of the essence of a triangle, existence is fundamental to the essence of God. Therefore, we can infer that God exists from the definition of God.

Compare and Contrast Anselm's Ontological Argument and Descartes' Ontological Argument

They are both deductive arguments based on logical reasons that lead to an undeniable conclusion. They both claim that existence is a perfection - that it makes something greater. Both state that God is a necessary being such that existence is a part of his definition. Descartes says, "the existence of God is as certain as I have taken the truth of mathematics". Anselm says, "He who understands God... cannot conceive that he does not exist".

However, Descartes has the idea of God through introspection, while Anselm has the idea of God through faith. As well as this difference, Descartes uses necessary truths of maths, triangles, to show that by analogy, God has necessary existence. Descartes also makes clear what Anselm only assumes: by saying that existence is part of God's essence, he is saying that it is part of God's definition (a predicate).

Outline Kant's Criticism Based On Existence Not Being A Predicate (5)

1) When we say something exists, we are not giving it any new attribute.

2) For example, imagine 100 thalers (coins). They have the attributes of round, golden, heavy and 100. Now, we add existence to our conception of the coins. The properties of our imagined coins, which exist, are still: round, golden, heavy and 100.

3) Kant says the coins have gained no new attribute by adding existence.

4) Kant expands this by saying that existence is not a genuine, first order, predicate. For example, hooves are a first order predicate of a horse because they add a descriptive property to our concept of a horse.

5) Kant claims that existence is a secondary predicate because it does not add a descriptive property to a thing and enrich our concept of it.

6) Whether something exists or not, it has the same properties. Therefore, existence is not a genuine predicate as it is not a defining characteristic.

Outline Kant's Criticism Based On Existence Not Being A Predicate (12)

When we say something exists, we are not giving it any new attribute. For example, imagine 100 thalers (coins). They have the attributes of round, golden, heavy and 100. Now, we add existence to our conception of the coins. The properties of our imagined coins, which exist, are still: round, golden, heavy and 100. Kant says the coins have gained no new attribute by adding existence.

Kant expands this by saying that existence is not a genuine, first order, predicate. For example, hooves are a first order predicate of a horse because they add a descriptive property to our concept of a horse. Kant claims that existence is a secondary predicate because it does not add a descriptive property to a thing and enrich our concept of it. Whether something exists or not, it has the same properties. Therefore, existence is not a genuine predicate as it is not a defining characteristic. Considering a horse, unlink first order predicates, like hooves, second order predicates are not part of the definition of a horse or anything else (numerous, funny, existence). Anselm and Descartes did not see this difference.

Outline Empiricist Objections to a Priori Arguments for Existence (5)

1) Hume focuses his attack on Anselm's argument on the basis of the possibility of a necessary being.

2) He argues that the notion of necessary existence has 'no meaning', because 'it will always be possible for us at any time to conceive the non-existence of something we formerly conceived to exist'.

3) When a necessary statement is rejected, it results in a contradiction. For example, If I said, "Bachelors can be married", I have immediately contradicted myself because it is necessary for bachelors to be unmarried.

4) When an existential statement is rejected, it does not result in a contradiction.

5) This makes God's existence contingent rather than necessary. God cannot be a necessary being because nothing 'has' to exist.

6) Therefore, the ontological argument fails.

Outline Empiricist Objections to a Priori Arguments for Existence (12)

Hume focuses his attack on Anselm's argument on the basis of the possibility of a necessary being. He argues that the notion of necessary existence has 'no meaning', because 'it will always be possible for us at any time to conceive the non-existence of something we formerly conceived to exist'.

"Whatever we conceive as existent, we can also conceive as non-existent. There is no being, therefore, whose non-existence implies a contradiction. Consequently, there is no Being whose existence is demonstrable." - Hume

When a necessary statement is rejected, it results in a contradiction. For example, If I said, "Bachelors can be married", I have immediately contradicted myself because it is necessary for bachelors to be unmarried.

When an existential statement is rejected, it does not result in a contradiction. This makes God's existence contingent rather than necessary. God cannot be a necessary being because nothing 'has' to exist. Therefore, the ontological argument fails.

Outline Norman Malcolm's Ontological Argument (5)

Malcolm uses Aquinas' definition of factually necessary existence - that which is self-sufficient and eternal (aseity); this can be denied without contradiction. Other Ontological arguments use Anselm's definition of logically necessary existence - that which has to exist by definition; this cannot be denied without contradiction.

1) God's existence is self-sufficient and eternal.

2) This means that if God did not exist, he cannot come into existence.

3) Otherwise, He would have been caused to exist by something else (impossible) or have a starting point (impossible)

4) If God does exist, he cannot cease to exist as this would mean He had an end point (impossible)

5) We can conclude from 1-4 that if God does not exist then Hid existence is impossible and if He does exist then his existence is necessary.

6) Therefore, God's existence is either impossible or necessary (has to exist).

7) His existence is not impossible as the concept is not self-contradictory.

8) Therefore, God necessarily exists.

Outline Norman Malcolm's Ontological Argument (12)

Malcolm uses Aquinas' definition of factually necessary existence - that which is self-sufficient and eternal (aseity); this can be denied without contradiction. Other Ontological arguments use Anselm's definition of logically necessary existence - that which has to exist by definition; this cannot be denied without contradiction.

God's existence is self-sufficient and eternal(God has aseity). This means that if God did not exist, he cannot come into existence. Otherwise, He would have been caused to exist by something else (impossible) or have a starting point (impossible). If God does exist, he cannot cease to exist as this would mean He had an end point (impossible). We can then conclude that if God does not exist then Hid existence is impossible and if He does exist then his existence is necessary. Therefore, God's existence is either impossible or necessary (has to exist). His existence is not impossible as the concept is not self-contradictory. Therefore, God necessarily exists.