INTSTDS 2800 Midterm Study Guide

here are three sections: Reading Questions, Concept Bank, and an Essay.

What are two differences between the old paradigm of war and so-called “new wars,” according to David Cortright?

The main differences between old and new wars are the actors and objectives. Old wars were primarily interstate conflicts between state armies, aiming for territorial conquest or political control. New wars are mostly intrastate, involving non-state actors like militias and communities divided by ethnicity, religion, or language. They often deliberately target civilians through terror, ethnic cleansing, or genocide, pursuing political, ethnic, or ideological goals rather than conventional military objectives like fighting for land.

What 3 features does Johan Galtung believe that a good definition of peace must have?

Johan Galtung argues that a good definition of peace must refer to social goals agreed to by many, be complex but realistically attainable, and link peace to the absence of violence, including both personal and structural forms. “This ensures the definition is meaningful, achievable, and oriented toward reducing harm in society.”

To explain a woman’s metastatic breast cancer in the year 2000, Paul Farmer argues we need to go back to the Haitian Revolution more than 200 years before, if not even earlier. What is the relevance of this history to understanding Anite’s illness, according to Farmer?

This history created long-lasting social and economic inequalities, which Farmer calls structural violence, that continue to shape health outcomes. Poverty, limited access to healthcare, and social injustice make diseases like breast cancer more likely and harder to treat. Farmer stresses that these conditions are not accidental but are deeply rooted in historical and social structures, explaining persistent health disparities like aids that were brought and solutions to the aids crisis were deemed unrealistic.

What are Loïc Wacquant’s 3 objections to Paul Farmer’s conception of structural violence?

1) We can identify responsible individuals

–Slavery was not invisible, not “indirect,” and not

nobody’s fault

2) it’s too broad, includes very different harms

–“‘Structural violence’ conflates full-fledged domination with

mere social disparity...”

3) Violence does not always need to be hidden

–“the concept is saturated with moral judgments that invite

anachronism

What is cultural peace, according to Johan Galtung? Give an example.

According to Johan Galtung, cultural peace is the elimination of cultural or symbolic violence: beliefs and practices that justify inequality or harm. Cultural peace fosters respect, equality, and human rights. An example is South Africa’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission promoted cultural peace by confronting racist ideologies and encouraging understanding between racial groups after apartheid.

What is a “folk image,” according to Kenneth Boulding? Describe the folk image of the United States, in your own words.

A “folk image,” according to Kenneth Boulding, is the collective self-image a nation’s citizens create, rather than one imposed by elites. The U.S. folk image portrays the country as a “land of the free” and a “melting pot,” where anyone—regardless of background—can achieve success through hard work and opportunity.

In his 1899 speech “The Strenuous Life,” Theodore Roosevelt argued, “We cannot play the part of China.” What “part” did China play, according to Roosevelt? And why did he think that role was incompatible with the U.S. having a strenuous national life?

According to Roosevelt, China represented weakness and passivity, having grown stagnant and dominated by foreign powers. He argued the U.S. could not “play the part of China” because a strong nation must live strenuously: embracing struggle, ambition, and action to avoid decline and maintain greatness.

Michael Howard argues that World War I had the same causes as the Peloponnesian War. What caused both wars, according to Howard?

wars begin with conscious and reasoned decisions based on the calculation, made by both parties, that they can achieve more by going to war than by remaining at peace This rivalry and fear between powers created tension and mistrust that ultimately led to war.

What are the 3 ways that Kenneth Waltz believes the US can respond to Iran’s nuclear ambitions? Explain the option he prefers and one reason he gives in favor of it.

Waltz saw three options:

1)Diplomacy and sanctions so Iran gives up nuclear ambitions

2)Letting Iran have a “breakout capacity” so they could quickly weaponize nuclear power

3)Just give them the bomb preffered reason: balance and mutual deterrence

Explain three ways that J. Ann Tickner believes the realist analysis of international relations is distorted by masculine assumptions.

1) Individual: assumes that “citizen warrior” is

always struggling for power

2) State: depicted as unitary actors that do

not need to trust or help others to continue existing

3) International: Assumes any situation without adominating authority is a kind ofanarchy or “state of nature

In their 1983 pastoral letter, the National Conference of Catholic Bishops refer to an “Augustinian insight” as the “central premise” of just war theory. Explain that insight in your own words.

St. Augustine saw war as a result of human sin and a tragic but sometimes necessary remedy for it. Governments, he argued, have a duty to use force only to restrain evil and protect the innocent, not for power or conquest.

Define jus ad bellum and explain 4 of the 7 main criteria that determine whether a war meets that standard.

Jus ad bellum means the right to go to war — the rules that decide if starting a war is morally or legally justified. Four main criteria are:

Just cause: War must be fought to correct a serious wrong (like self-defense).

Right authority: Only legitimate governments that reflect the people can declare war.

Right intention: The goal must be peace, not revenge or gain.

Last resort: All peaceful options must be tried first.

Define jus in bello and explain the 2 main criteria that determine whether conduct in war meets that standard.

Jus in bello means “justice in war” — the rules for proper conduct during war.
The two main criteria are:

• Discrimination: Soldiers must target only combatants, not civilians.

• Proportionality: The force used must be proportional to the military goal and not cause unnecessary suffering.

Michael Walzer argues that the difference between legitimate and illegitimate first strikes should be drawn “at the point of sufficient threat.” What three features characterize a sufficient threat?

According to Michael Walzer, a sufficient threat has three features:

1. A manifest intent to injure

2. Active preparation that makes the intent clear.

3. Waiting magnifies the risk of danger

According to Michael Walzer, the primary example of a just war is a war fought in self-defense or against aggression. Explain two of the kinds of wars that he thinks can be just that are not fought in self-defense or against aggression.

Walzer argues that wars can also be just if they are:

1. Humanitarian interventions – to stop massive human rights abuses or genocide.

2. Secession – national liberation such as seeking to make an independent community

Give two arguments for the justice of the 2003 US invasion of Iraq and two arguments against.

Arguments for:

Self-defense / preemption: The U.S. claimed Iraq had weapons of mass destruction and posed a potential threat.

Humanitarian / regime change: The invasion aimed to remove Saddam Hussein, whose regime committed human rights abuses.

Arguments against:

Lack of immediate threat: Iraq did not pose an imminent danger to the U.S., so preemptive war was questionable.

Disproportionate impact: Civilian casualties and instability suggest the harm outweighed the benefits.

Negative and Positive Peace

Negative Peace: The absence of direct violence or war.
Positive Peace: The presence of social justice, equality, and structures that prevent violence.
Origin: Johan Galtung introduced these concepts in peace studies.

Absolute and Contingent Pacifism

Absolute Pacifism: The belief that all war and violence are always wrong, no exceptions.
Contingent Pacifism: The belief that war is generally wrong, but may be justified in extreme cases (e.g., self-defense).

Direct & Structural Violence

Direct Violence: Physical harm or force caused by an individual or group (e.g., murder, assault, bombing).

Structural Violence: Social or economic systems that harm people by limiting their access to resources, rights, or opportunities (e.g., poverty, racism, unequal healthcare).

Concept developed by: Johan Galtung.

Cultural Violence

Cultural Violence: Aspects of culture (like religion, ideology, or art) that justify or legitimize direct or structural violence.

Concept developed by: Johan Galtung.

Real and Illusory Incompatibility of National Images

Real and Illusory Incompatibility of National Images: The idea that conflicts between nations can arise from true (real) clashes of interest or from misunderstandings and stereotypes (illusory) in how each country perceives the other.

Concept developed by: Kenneth Boulding.

Security Dilemma

Security Dilemma: A situation in which one country’s efforts to increase its security (like building up its military) make other countries feel less secure, prompting them to also increase their military, which can lead to conflict even if no one originally wanted war.

Concept developed by: John Herz.

The Domestic Analogy

The Domestic Analogy: The idea that the international system works like a society of individuals, where states are like people and need a central authority (like a government) to maintain order and prevent conflict.

Preventive & Preemptive War

Preventive War: A war fought to stop a potential future threat before it becomes serious, even if the threat isn’t immediate.

Preemptive War: A war fought in response to an imminent or immediate threat, striking first to defend against an attack.

Mass Incarceration - extremely high rates of imprisonment in a country, especially the United States, where millions of people—disproportionately Black, Indigenous, and Latino—are held in prisons or jails. It is fueled by harsh sentencing laws, the “war on drugs,” mandatory minimums

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1. Structural Violence

• Definition: Social structures or institutions that systematically harm or disadvantage people.

• Application to Mass Incarceration: The U.S. criminal justice system disproportionately imprisons Black and Latino people due to policies like mandatory minimums and the war on drugs. These policies produce harm indirectly, by limiting economic opportunities, destabilizing families, and increasing poverty. Structural violence explains how mass incarceration is built into society rather than just the result of individual choices.

2. Cultural Violence

• Definition: Aspects of culture (ideas, norms, or symbols) that justify or legitimize direct or structural violence.

• Application to Mass Incarceration: Media portrayals of Black and Latino communities as inherently criminal, “tough on crime” political rhetoric, and myths about drug use justify harsh sentencing and imprisonment. Cultural violence helps explain why these policies gain social and political acceptance despite harming communities.

3. Security Dilemma (optional connection)

• Definition: When one group’s efforts to increase its security cause others to feel threatened, leading to escalating measures.

• Application to Mass Incarceration: Politicians and communities perceive rising crime as a threat and respond with harsher policing and incarceration. This escalates distrust and tension, particularly between law enforcement and minority communities.

The Spanish-American War - was a conflict between the United States and Spain, triggered by U.S. support for Cuban independence. The war began after the explosion of the USS Maine in Havana harbor. It was short, lasting about four months, and ended with the Treaty of Paris, in which Spain ceded control of Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the U.S. The war marked the U.S.’s emergence as a global power.

1. Preventive & Preemptive War

• Definition: Preemptive war is striking first when an attack is imminent; preventive war is striking first to stop a potential future threat.

• Application: The U.S. intervened in Cuba partly to prevent Spain from maintaining colonial control and to protect American economic and strategic interests. While framed as protecting Cubans, some historians see this as a preventive war to expand U.S. influence in the Caribbean.

2. Folk Image / Real and Illusory Incompatibility of National Images

• Definition: Folk images are ideas citizens hold about other nations; real vs. illusory incompatibility refers to perceived conflicts that may not exist.

• Application: Many Americans viewed Spain as cruel and Cuba as oppressed, creating a folk image that justified war. The idea that U.S. interests and Spanish control were inherently incompatible drove public support, even if diplomacy could have resolved tensions.

3. The Domestic Analogy (optional connection)

• Definition: Applying domestic concepts (like law and order or moral duty) to international relations.

• Application: The U.S. portrayed itself as a protector of the “innocent” Cuban population, similar to a parent or government protecting citizens at home, justifying intervention.

Ohio State University’s AI Fluency Initiative - Ohio State University's AI Fluency Initiative is a comprehensive educational program aimed at integrating artificial intelligence (AI) into the undergraduate experience for all students, starting with the class of 2029. The initiative seeks to ensure that graduates are not only proficient in their chosen fields of study but also fluent in applying AI tools and concepts within those disciplines.

• Direct & Structural Violence – Indirectly, the initiative addresses structural inequalities in education and access to technology, helping reduce the disadvantage some students face in a tech-driven world.

• Cultural Violence – By integrating AI literacy into all programs, the initiative helps shift cultural assumptions about who can use and benefit from AI, promoting inclusivity.

• Real and Illusory Incompatibility of National Images – Training students in AI fosters a shared understanding of technology and global competitiveness, helping reduce misconceptions and gaps between different academic or societal groups.

The aftermath of Haiti’s 2010 earthquake - The 2010 earthquake in Haiti killed over 200,000 people, destroyed much of Port-au-Prince, and left millions homeless. The country’s already weak infrastructure, poor health system, and dependence on foreign aid made recovery extremely difficult. International aid was often delayed, mismanaged, or tied to political conditions, worsening the suffering of the Haitian population.

• Structural Violence – Haiti’s chronic poverty, weak infrastructure, and lack of healthcare made the earthquake far deadlier than it might have been in a wealthier country. The unequal distribution of resources before the quake intensified suffering afterward.

• Direct & Structural Violence – The earthquake itself was a natural disaster, but the massive death toll was amplified by structural violence: collapsed hospitals, lack of emergency response, and slow international aid.

• Cultural Violence – International narratives sometimes blamed Haitians for their own suffering or treated them as passive recipients of aid, normalizing inequality and masking the historical and social causes of vulnerability.

• Preventive & Preemptive War (less direct but arguable) – Some international interventions in the post-quake period were justified as preventing instability or unrest, reflecting how preemptive action can be framed even in disaster contexts.

The departure of French troops from Mali - French troops began withdrawing from Mali in 2022 after years of intervention against Islamist insurgents. Their presence had helped stabilize some areas but also fueled anti-French sentiment and questions about sovereignty. The withdrawal left Mali’s government and military to manage security, while insurgent groups remained active.

• Security Dilemma – The withdrawal may intensify local conflicts, as groups respond to perceived threats in an anarchic environment.

• Direct & Structural Violence – Insurgent attacks are direct violence, while long-term instability caused by weak governance and foreign intervention is structural violence.

• Cultural Violence – Framing the withdrawal as “ending colonial involvement” or focusing on national sovereignty masks the harm inflicted on local populations who rely on security assistance.

• Preventive & Preemptive War – French intervention was initially framed as preemptive against terrorism, showing how external powers justify military action based on future threats.

Russia’s invasion of Ukraine - Russia invaded Ukraine in February 2022, claiming security concerns and territorial interests. The war has caused massive civilian casualties, displacement, and destruction of infrastructure, while provoking global sanctions and military support for Ukraine.

• Security Dilemma – Russia’s fear of NATO expansion drove preemptive and aggressive action, while Ukraine’s defensive measures were perceived as threatening, creating a cycle of mistrust.

• Preventive & Preemptive War – Russia framed the invasion as a preemptive strike against potential threats from NATO, though Ukraine posed no immediate attack.

• Direct & Structural Violence – The invasion involves direct violence through military attacks and structural violence through the disruption of Ukrainian society, economy, and infrastructure.

• Cultural Violence – Russian narratives justify the invasion by claiming Ukraine is historically part of Russia or that Ukrainians are not fully sovereign, legitimizing aggressive action.

The U.S.’s refusal to return the Black Hills to the Sioux - The Black Hills, sacred to the Sioux, were taken by the U.S. government after gold was discovered in the 1870s, despite treaties guaranteeing Sioux ownership. The U.S. has refused to return the land, though monetary compensation was offered and largely rejected by the Sioux.

• Structural Violence – The U.S. government’s refusal to return the Black Hills perpetuates long-term harm to the Sioux by denying them access to their sacred lands, resources, and cultural heritage. This systematic deprivation limits their social, economic, and political well-being.

• Cultural Violence – Laws, policies, and narratives were used to justify the seizure and continued withholding of the Black Hills, portraying it as legal or inevitable, which masks the injustice and makes the structural violence socially acceptable.

• Direct & Structural Violence – The original land seizure involved direct military force, while the continued refusal to return the land constitutes structural violence, as it enforces inequality and injustice over generations.

Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (aka “The Iran Nuclear Deal”) - Signed in 2015 between Iran and the P5+1 countries (U.S., U.K., France, Russia, China, Germany), the JCPOA aimed to limit Iran’s nuclear program in exchange for sanctions relief. It included restrictions on uranium enrichment, monitoring by the IAEA, and a framework for gradually lifting economic sanctions if Iran complied. The deal was intended to prevent Iran from acquiring nuclear weapons while avoiding war.

• Security Dilemma – Iran’s nuclear ambitions created fears among other states (especially Israel and the U.S.) that prompted military posturing, sanctions, and calls for preventive action. The JCPOA sought to reduce this dilemma by providing transparency and limits.

• Preventive & Preemptive War – The deal was partly designed to avoid the need for a preemptive strike on Iran, which some policymakers considered if Iran developed nuclear weapons.

• The Domestic Analogy – Some critics argued Iran could not be trusted as a “responsible government” based on assumptions about domestic behavior, influencing the debate over whether negotiation or military action was appropriate.

• Direct & Structural Violence – Economic sanctions imposed on Iran prior to the deal caused structural suffering, affecting ordinary citizens more than leaders, showing how international strategies can have violent consequences beyond combat.