Social Psychology ch. 2+3

hypothesis

A specific, testable prediction about when or why something will happen.

theory

An organized set of principles used to explain and predict observed phenomena.

Basic research

Research designed to increase our understanding of human behavior.

applied research

Research designed to solve real-world problems or apply psychological knowledge to practical situations.

conceptual variable

An abstract idea being studied, such as love, happiness, social anxiety, lonliness, etc.

operational definition

The specific way a researcher measures or manipulates a conceptual variable.

construct validity

How well the study's measurements or manipulations actually represent the conceptual variables they're supposed to represent.

interrater reliability

The amount of agreement between multiple observers who are judging the same behavior.

descriptive research

describes people's thoughts, feelings, or behaviors without trying to determine cause and effect.

archival research

Researchers examine existing records, such as historical documents, crime statistics, sports statistics, medical records, or social-media data.

pro: Researchers aren't influencing the behavior because they're studying records that already exist.

con: Records may be incomplete or poorly collected.

random sampling

everyone in the population has an equal chance of being selected. It helps make the sample representative of the larger population. Determines WHO gets into the study.

correlational research

examines whether two variables are related to each other. Researchers measure variables rather than manipulating them.

correlation coefficient

A number from −1.0 to +1.0 that tells us the strength and direction of a relationship.

positive correlation

Both variables move in the same direction.

negative correlation

Variables move in opposite directions.

zero correlation

There is no consistent relationship between the variables.

experiments

used to determine cause and effect.

experimenter control

Researchers control and manipulate the variables.

random assignment

Participants are randomly placed into different conditions. Determines WHICH CONDITION participants are placed into. Helps researchers determine cause and effect.

Internal validity

Can we be confident that the independent variable actually caused the result?

Experiments have stronger internal validity when researchers control other possible explanations.

confound

another factor that changes along with the independent variable and could explain the results.

control group

A group that experiences the procedures without the experimental treatment, providing a comparison or baseline.

Experimenter Expectancy Effects

Researchers' expectations can unintentionally influence participants or the results.

external validity

Can the results be generalized to other people and situations?

A study has stronger external validity if its findings apply beyond the specific participants and setting used in the study.

mundane realism

How much the research setting resembles real life.

experimental realism

How much the situation feels real and involving to the participant, even if it doesn't resemble everyday life.

deception

Researchers give participants false or incomplete information about the study to produce more natural behavior.

confederate

A person who appears to be a participant but is actually working with the researcher.

Statistical Significance

A statistical result suggesting that the observed finding is unlikely to have occurred simply by chance.

5% threshold

if chance could explain the result fewer than 5 times out of 100, the finding is considered statistically significant.

replication

Repeating a study to see whether similar results occur again.

meta-analysis

A statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies to determine the overall strength and reliability of an effect.

Institutional Review Board

A group that reviews research proposals to make sure participants' rights and welfare are protected.

informed consent

Participants receive enough information about the study and its potential risks to make an informed decision about participating.

debriefing

Participants receive enough information about the study and its potential risks to make an informed decision about participating.

preregistration

Researchers record their predictions and analysis plans before collecting data.

open science

Researchers make their materials and data accessible to improve transparency.

cognition

how we think about ourselves

affect

how we feel about ourselves

behavior

how we regulate and present ourselves

self-concept

The sum total of beliefs we have about ourselves—our traits, abilities, motivations, identities, etc.

self-schemas

Specific beliefs about ourselves that guide how we process information about ourselves.

schematic

An attribute is an important part of your self-concept.

aschematic

An attribute isn't particularly important to how you define yourself.

looking-glass self

Charles Horton Cooley's idea that other people act like a mirror through which we see ourselves.

We often think: “how do other epople see me?” and incorporate those perceptions into our own self-concept.

relational self

Our sense of who we are is influenced by our past and current relationships with important people.

meta-insight

The ability to understand the difference between:

• how we see ourselves

• how other people see us

introspection

looking inward at your own thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and motivations.

affective forecasting

Predicting how you will feel in the future.

The textbook says we're often bad at predicting our future emotional reactions.

impact bias

The tendency to overestimate the intensity and duration of our future emotional reactions. when the event actually happens, we often adjust and cope better than we predicted.

self-perception theory

Daryl Bem's theory that when our internal feelings are unclear, we can learn about ourselves by observing our own behavior and the situation. "I watch what I do → I figure out what I must feel/believe."

SOKA model

explains when we know ourselves better than other people—and when other people may know us better.

Facial feedback hypothesis

Changes in facial expressions can influence or trigger the subjective experience of emotion. Your face can influence how you feel. EX: Research in the textbook found that smiling can make people feel somewhat happier.

intrinsic motivation

Doing something because you enjoy it, find it interesting, or find it challenging.

extrinsic motivation

Doing something because of an outside reward or consequence.

overjustification effect

When an expected external reward causes someone to become less intrinsically motivated to do something they originally enjoyed. EX: you love art, but when you start getting paid to do it, you see it as more of a job.

social comparison theory

Leon Festinger's theory that when objective information isn't available, people evaluate their abilities and opinions by comparing themselves with others.

upward social comparison

Comparing yourself with someone who is better/more successful in an area.

-Can inspire you, but can also make you feel inadequate.

downward social comparison

Comparing yourself with someone who is worse off than you.

-Can protect or increase self-esteem.

Two-factor theory of emotion

An emotion results from: 1. Physiological arousal + 2. Cognitive interpretation

Other people can influence how we interpret that arousal.

EX: Your heart is racing. You might interpret it as: "I'm scared." "I'm excited." "I'm nervous."

depending on the situation and cues around you.

Social psychology

how people think about, influence, and relate to one another

dispositional factors

internal, personal characteristics. EX: personality traits, genetics, and temperament

situational factors

External conditions, events, or social surroundings from the environment that shape a person’s behavior, thoughts, and feelings in a specific moment

autobiographical memory

Memories of events and experiences from your own life. They help create a sense of:

Continuity, Identity, and Personal history

Reminiscence bump

Older adults tend to remember a disproportionately large number of events from adolescence and early adulthood.

flashbulb memories

Very vivid and detailed memories of emotionally significant events. Some memories feel extremely accurate but aren't necessarily accurate.

Individualism

Emphasizes independence, autonomy, self-reliance, personal achievement, and individual goals.

collectivism

Emphasizes interdependence, cooperation, social harmony, group relationships, and group goals.

independent self

The self is viewed as separate, autonomous, unique

interdependent self

The self is viewed as connected to and defined partly by relationships.

dialecticism

A style of thinking that accepts that contradictory characteristics can coexist. Instead of: "Someone is either X OR Y." This thinking allows: "Someone can be X AND Y depending on the situation."

self-esteem

Our positive and negative evaluations of ourselves. It's not completely fixed. It can change in response to life experiences. EX: Academic ability, physical appearance, athletic ability, morality, social acceptance, relationships, etc.

Sociometer theory

Self-esteem functions as a gauge of how accepted or rejected a person feels by others. Rejection → lower self-esteem → motivation to regain acceptance

Hierometer theory

Self-esteem functions as a gauge of a person’s perceived social status or rank.

terror management theory

Self-esteem helps protect people from anxiety associated with awareness of mortality by providing meaning, identity, and connection to cultural worldviews.

self-discrepency theory

Our self-esteem is influenced by the gap between actual self, ideal self, and ought self.

actual self

Who you believe you currently are.

ideal self

Who you would like to be.

ought self

Who you believe you should be.

self awareness

When something causes us to focus attention on ourselves, we compare our behavior to our standards. Things that can increase self-awareness: mirrors, cameras, being on stage, talking about yourself, watching yourself on video, being the center of attention

Private self-consciousness

Focus on your inner thoughts and feelings.

Public self-consciousness

Focus on how other people see you.

self- regulation

The process of controlling your thoughts, feelings, urges, and behaviors in order to achieve goals or meet standards. can be mentally and physically demanding and damaging.

ironic processes

Sometimes the harder you try not to think about or do something, the more likely it becomes.

self-enhancement

The tendency to maintain or increase a positive view of ourselves.

better than average effect

People tend to believe they are better than average on positive characteristics.

self-handicapping

Creating obstacles or excuses that can protect your self-esteem from failure. EX: "I didn't study because I was too busy." If you fail, you have an excuse.

Sandbagging

Purposely lowering expectations or publicly predicting failure so that failure won't hurt as much—or success will look more impressive.

basking in reflected glory

increasing your self-esteem by associating yourself with successful people or groups.

EX: Your favorite team wins → suddenly you're wearing their sweatshirt and saying: “we won” even though you werent even actually playing

self-verification

The desire for other people to see us the way we see ourselves. Interestingly, people don't always want purely positive feedback. If someone has a negative self-concept, they may sometimes prefer feedback that confirms their existing self-view rather than positive feedback that contradicts it.

self-presentation

The process of trying to shape what other people think of us—and sometimes what we think of ourselves. We manage our public image through clothing, behavior, social media, speech, roles, and appearance.

spotlight effect

The tendency to overestimate how much other people notice us.

self-monitoring

The tendency to regulate your behavior based on the demands of a social situation. high= you adjust your behavior more