bio 1114 final

mircroevol

changes within
a population over generation
(single species)

marcoevol

evolutionary
changes that result
in different species
(speciation

interference

More closely related species will share

more similar characteristics than less closely

related species

homology

similarity resulting from

common ancestry

plesiomorphy

character state found

in the ancestor of the group (the

outgroup will have plesiomorphic

characteristics)

apomorphy

derived character states

found in descendants of the group;

evolutionary novelties acquired AFTER

divergence from the ancestral group

synapomorphy

shared, derived

character states that indicate

homology

• More closely related groups will

share more synapomorphies

monophyletic grp

a common ancestor and all of its descendants

paraphyletic grp

a group

containing a common ancestor

but NOT all of its descendants

homoplasy

character states appear the same in 2

taxa but NOT evolved from common

ancestor → Polyphyletic groups: a group

characterized by 1 or more

homoplasies

parsimony

simple is best

morphological species concept

organisms of the same species share more similar

characteristics with each other than those of different species because of a longer

shared evolutionary history

genetic species concept

organisms of the same species share more similar DNA

than those of different species because of a longer shared evolutionary history

biological species concept

species are groups of organisms that can interbreed

and produce fertile offspring and are reproductively isolated from other species

limitations to species concepts

• Biological species concept: hybrids (offspring of produced by 2 species mating),

extinct organisms, asexually reproducing species

• Morphological species concept: variation within species is tremendous, what

variation is relevant?

• Genetic species concepts: variation within species is tremendous, what variation is

relevant?

speciation

the process by which populations attain reproductive isolation

mechanical isolation

Morphological differences, often in

genitals, result in mating

incompatibility

bahaviourl isolation

Mating behavioral differences prevent mating:

• Incorrect courtship displays

• Can’t recognize mating signals

reduced viability

hybrids either fail to develop or are very frail and unlikely to

survive

temporal isolation

species breed during different time of

day, season, or year

allopatric

reproduction prevented by geographic isolation of a

previously continuous population

vicariance

population split by the formation of a geographic barrier

parapatric

Geographically continuous

populations over extremely vast

distances (para = through, patra =

homeland) experience divergence

sympatric

peciation occurs in populations that live in the same geographic

area

niche

the specific biotic and abiotic resources

used by a species

competive exclusion

2 species will never be

perfectly equally successful at utilizing a

resource so more successful competitor will

exclude the other from its nich

resource partition

similar species can

coexist in an area if they use different sets of

similar resources or the same resource at

different times

population

a group of individuals of the same species living in the same area

est pop w/ mark recapture

carrying capacity

max pop siz enviorn can have

survivorship

% of the

population that survives to a

given age

• = # of individuals surviving to a

given age/total individuals

type 1 survivorship

High survival rates until

later age

• Traits of species with this

survivorship pattern?

• Relatively few offspring with

high parental care → lower

death in early age

• Example: Elephants

type 2 survivorship

Roughly equal

proportions die in each age

class

• Example: ground squirrels

type 3 survivorship

Very high mortality in

early life but low mortality for

older age groups

• Traits of species with this

survivorship pattern?

• Production of large #s of

offspring without parental

care

• Example: Oaks trees, 1000s

of acorns

interspecific interact

interactions

between individuals of different specie

intraspecies interact

interactions

between members of the same species

parasitisim

+/- relationship in which the

parasite derives nutrition from its host

which is harmed in the process

• Parasite typically lives in/on host

• Ectoparasites: parasites that feed

externally on their host

• e.g. ticks feed on blood from host’s skin

• Endoparasites: parasites that feed

internally

• e.g. heart worm

commensalism

+/0 relationship between two species in which one benefits

while the other is unaffected

mutualism

+/+ relationships in which individuals from both species benefit

eco engineer

species that directly and dramatically

alter their physical environment such that habitat is

maintained or created

interspecific competition

a -/- interaction between individuals of different

species competing for shared resources

fundamental/ realized niche

Fundamental niche: the full suite of resources potentially used by a species in

absence of competition

• Realized niche: the portion of a species’ fundamental niche actually used in the

presence of competition

greenhouse gas

gases in the atmosphere that

absorb long-wave radiation

reflected off Earth’s surface

and then re-radiate that heat

back toward Eart

what happens when co2 levels increase

Amount of heat

escaping to outer space

decreases

• Amount of heat re-

radiated back to Earth’s

surface increases

• More GHGs in atmosphere

= more heat trapped =

warmer Earth

turnover rate of c

how quickly C moves from one pool to another

residence time c

how long

C remains in a pool before

moving to another

biospheric pool

C stored in

living tissue (mostly

photosynthetic organisms)

- fast turnover and short

residence time (respiration,

death/ decomposition)

fossil fuel

C stored in geologic

deposits formed from organic

matter

• Coal = C in rock form

• Oil: C stored in tiny gaps

between rock

carbon fixation

process of

converting inorganic C into

organic C compounds in living

tissues

carbon sinks

reservoirs that

accumulate C

3 types of orbital cycles

1. Obliquity: changes in how tilted

Earth’s axis is → cycles last ~41,000

years

2. Eccentricity: changes in how circular

our orbit around the sun is → cycles

last ~100,000 years

3. Precession: changes in the direction

of Earth’s tilt → cycles last 19,000-

23,000 years

urban heat island

Urban

areas are hotter than

surrounding, less urbanized

areas

• Why?

• Dark surfaces heat up a LOT

• Vegetation actively cools

power dissipation index

aggregate measure of storm

intensity, frequency, and

duration

• measure of total

hurricane power over a

year’s hurricane season

extinction

loss of all indiv of species

backgroud extinction rate - constant extinction

mass extinction - rapid decline in large # of species, higher than bg extict rate

adaptive radiations:

pds of evol change when orgs form many new species w/ adaptations to diff niches

modern extinction rates

classified as: extinct, extinct in wild, presu,es extinct

2 types:

• highly conservative estimate: includes on;y species classified extinct

• conservative estimate: includes species classified as extinct in

  the wild or presumed extinct.

prokaryotes

orgs w/ cells that lack membrane-bound organelles + nuc

• include bacteria, archea

• smaller genomes + ribo

• plasmids: small indep replicaing circular dna mol

• binary fission: one cell splits in two

eukaryotes

org w/ cels that have membrane-bound organelles + nuc

• include protists, plants, fungi, and animals

archea

• singl;e cel prok

• usually extremophiles → live in extreme conditions

• extreme thermophile: live in extreme heat

• extreme halophiles: live in extemely salty enviorns

connection w/ mitro and chloro

• lipid bilayers

• circular dna + indep replication

• own ribo that r smaller than cell ribo

• both reproduce by splitting (close to fission)

endosymbiont theory

mito and cloro derived from ancestral pro that r engulfed by another cel

• relationship became symbiotic

protists

grp of unicell euk orgs that aren’t fungi, plants, and animals

• some r more related to plants, animals, or fungi than other protists for no one accepted phylogeny

• most euk r protists

green algae

• photosyn protists

• gA = protists = close relatives of land plants

• paraphyletic grp

• features of ga relates to land enviorn pressures

  • enbryos not protected by parent orgs

  • flagellated gametes: gametes to swim in water

  • no internal structural support

  • no vascular tissue

challenges for movment to land evol

• challenges

  • avoid desiccation

  • devel supportive tiss

  • gamestes that dont need water to fertilize

• adaptation:

  • vascular tiss

  • pollen

  • seeds

  • flowers

• benefits of moving to land

  • sunlight

  • higher co2 concentrations

  • fewer herbivores + pathogens (in early life)

  • nutrient rich soils

bryophytes

• non vascular plants

• usually small

• live in moist places

• 

vascular tissues

tissues wn/ cells that form tubes to transport water, nutrients, and sugars

2 types: xylem + phloem

• xylem: dead vessel elements cells form tubes to transport water (root to shoot)

  • contain lignin (polymer that gives structural support)

• phloem: living tube cells that transport sugar (leaves to plant)

ovules and pollen

• ovules - femal gamete where plant is produces

  • has protective covering via mem

• pollen - male structures that produce sperm

  • sperm delivered to egg via pollen

seeds

• primary dispersal mech for seed plants

• pollination: transfer of pollen to portion of plant that has ovule

  • pollen tube: releases sperm into female portion of plant

  • fertilization transformed ovule to seed

seeds vs spores

gymnosperms

• naked seeds (not contained in fruits)

• seeds often form on cones

  • conifers - cone bearing plants

• reproduction

  • not flagellated

  • reproduce through ovulate/pollen cones

  • wind pollinated

angiosperm

• seed plants w/ flower and fruit

• flowers - mode of reproduce in angiosperms

  • sepal - sterile outermost area of flower

  • petal - sterile whorl used to attract pollinator

  • carpel - female part of flower (stigma, style, ovary)

  • stamen - male part of flower (anther, filament)

pollen dispersal adaptations

• animal pollinated

  • prominent petals

  • coroful

  • tube like structures

• wind pollinated

  • prominent stamen

  • no/ lower # of petals

  • not colorful

fungi

• heterotrophs - feed by breaking down compounds outside their bodies

• have hydrlytic enzymes → breakdown mol nto form udsed by fungi

chytrid

• unicell parasitic fungus

• chytridiomycosis: chytrid fungal infection of skin of amphibians

• *IMPORTANT: chytrid case study

cooperative behaviour

• in grps: indiv raise non-offspring young

  • many birds, mammals, and insects

• breeding: indiv sacrifice reproduction to devote energy to raising relative’s young (helpers)

• altruism: reduces indiv fitness while increasing the fitness of another

  • somehow causes fitness beenfits for helpers

types of fitness

• direct fitness - fitness gained trhough allele transmission by offspring

• indirect fitness - gaines through allele transmission by helping relatives rear offspring

• inclusive fitnes - fitness gained through direct + indiret fitness

relatedness

• probability that 2 indiv shared a given allele

• must quantify relatedness to predict if cooperation/altriusm will occur

hamilton’s rule

indiv should behave altrusitically if fitness gain es » fitness lost from no reproduction

reciprocal altruism

indiv interact many times + change indiv interactions base on past behaviours