Human Genetics, Biological Bases of Behavior, and Endocrine System Vocabulary

A complete set of vocabulary flashcards derived from the lecture notes on genetics, neuronal structure, nervous system divisions, brain anatomy, imaging, and the endocrine system.

Sickle Cell Anemia

A genetic condition where red blood cells take on a crescent-like shape, affecting their function and potentially clogging blood vessels.

Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection

The theory stating that organisms better suited for their environment will survive and reproduce, while those poorly suited will die off.

Evolutionary Psychology

A branch of psychology focusing on how universal patterns of behavior and cognitive processes have evolved over time.

Behavioral Genetics

The study of how individual differences arise through the interaction of genes and environment in the present.

Genetic Variation

The genetic difference between individuals that contributes to a species' adaptation to its environment.

Gene

A sequence of DNA on a chromosome that controls or partially controls visible physical and psychological traits.

Allele

A specific version of a gene that affects the expression of a trait.

Genotype

An individual's genetic makeup inherited from their parents.

Phenotype

An individual's observable inherited physical characteristics, determined by the interaction of genotype and environmental factors.

Dominant Allele

An allele whose trait will always be expressed over a recessive allele in the phenotype.

Recessive Allele

An allele whose trait is expressed in the phenotype only when an individual is homozygous for that allele.

Homozygous

Having two copies of the exact same allele for a specific gene.

Heterozygous

Having a combination of two different alleles for a specific gene.

Polygenic

Refers to a trait that is affected or controlled by multiple genes.

Mutation

A sudden, permanent change in a gene that provides a source of variability in genes and traits.

Range of Reaction

The concept asserting that genes set boundaries for potential, while the environment determines where within that range an individual falls.

Genetic Environmental Correlation

The concept suggesting that genes influence an individual's environment, and the environment bidirectionally influences gene expression.

Epigenetics

The study of how the same genotype can lead to different phenotypes based on environmental influences on gene expression.

Glial Cells

Non-neuronal cells in the nervous system that outnumber neurons and provide support, insulation, transport, and immune protection.

Neuron

Interconnected information processing cells essential for all nervous system functions.

Soma

The cell body of a neuron containing the nucleus and producing neurotransmitters.

Dendrite

A branching extension of a neuron that receives input signals and neurotransmitters from other neurons.

Axon

A long extension from the soma that transmits signals via electrical impulses to the terminal buttons.

Terminal Button

Structure at the end of an axon containing synaptic vesicles that releases, regulates, and recycles neurotransmitters.

Myelin Sheath

An insulating layer formed by glial cells on axons that increases signal transmission speed.

Synapse

The small space between adjacent neurons where neurotransmitters are released.

Resting Potential

The state of a neuron before an incoming signal, where ions are lined up across the membrane ready to move based on charge and concentration differences.

Action Potential

The positive electrical spike propagating down an axon in an all-or-none manner once the threshold of excitation is reached.

Reuptake

The process of moving excess neurotransmitters from the synapse back into the axon terminal from which they were released.

Agonist

A chemical that mimics a neurotransmitter at receptor sites, strengthening its effects.

Antagonist

A chemical that blocks or impedes neurotransmitter activity by binding to receptors without activating them.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The primary division of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The division of the nervous system made of thick bundles of axons (nerves) connecting the CNS to the rest of the body.

Somatic Nervous System

A subdivision of the PNS that relays sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) information to and from the CNS.

Autonomic Nervous System

A subdivision of the PNS that controls internal organs and glands outside voluntary control.

Sympathetic Nervous System

A division of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for stress-related activities and activates the fight-or-flight response.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

A division of the autonomic nervous system that returns the body to routine operations and a relaxed state after stress.

Homeostasis

The tendency of a biological system to maintain an optimal internal balance.

Fight-or-Flight Response

A set of physiological responses to a perceived threat that accesses energy reserves and heightens sensory capacity.

Longitudinal Fissure

The prominent sulcus separating the brain into left and right hemispheres.

Corpus Callosum

A thick band of neural fibers connecting the brain's left and right hemispheres.

Cerebral Cortex

The uneven surface of the brain associated with highest mental capabilities like consciousness, thought, emotion, reasoning, language, and memory.

Prefrontal Cortex

A region in the frontal lobe responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning, reasoning, judgment, and impulse control.

Broca's Area

A region in the frontal lobe essential for language production.

Somatosensory Cortex

A region in the parietal lobe essential for processing sensory information across the body, such as touch, temperature, and pain.

Wernicke's Area

A region in the temporal lobe important for speech comprehension.

Thalamus

A forebrain structure serving as a sensory relay for the brain.

Limbic System

A collection of structures involved in processing emotion and memory, including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus.

Hippocampus

A temporal lobe structure in the limbic system associated with learning and memory.

Amygdala

A limbic system structure involved in experiencing emotion and tying emotional meaning to memories.

Reticular Formation

A midbrain structure regulating the sleep/wake cycle, arousal, alertness, and motor activity.

Substantia Nigra

A midbrain structure that produces dopamine and is involved in movement, reward, addiction, and Parkinson's disease.

Medulla

A hindbrain structure controlling automatic autonomic processes like breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate.

Pons

A hindbrain structure meaning 'bridge' that connects the brain and spinal cord and regulates brain activity during sleep.

Cerebellum

A hindbrain structure meaning 'little brain' controlling balance, coordination, movement, and procedural memory.

Computerized Tomography (CT) Scan

An imaging technique using radiation where a computer integrates multiple X-rays to locate tumors or brain atrophy.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Scan

An imaging technique involving injection of a mildly radioactive substance to track blood flow and neurotransmitter receptor activity.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

An imaging technique using strong magnetic fields to produce detailed pictures of tissue based on signals from moving hydrogen atoms.

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

An imaging technique tracking blood flow and oxygen levels over time to map brain activity and structure.

Electroencephalography (EEG)

A technique measuring overall electrical activity of the brain via electrodes to study brainwave frequency, amplitude, and sleep patterns.

Hormones

Chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands into the bloodstream to regulate widespread body functions.

Pituitary Gland

The master gland of the endocrine system that descends from the hypothalamus and secretes messenger hormones controlling all other endocrine glands.

Thyroid Gland

An endocrine gland in the neck releasing hormones that regulate growth, metabolism, and appetite.

Adrenal Gland

An endocrine gland sitting atop the kidneys that secretes stress response hormones like epinephrine and norepinephrine.

Pancreas

An organ secreting insulin and glucagon to regulate blood sugar levels.