EXAM 3: ch. 9-10 & 12

Development

the pattern of continuity & change in human capabilities that occurs throughout life, involving growth & decline

Developmental Changes

1. physical

2. cognitive

3. socioemotional

Nature

a person’s biological inheritance (genes)

Nurture

a person’s environmental & social experiences

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

features that appear in the offspring of those that drink alcohol heavily during pregnancy

• small head, limb & heart defects, below average intelligence

STI’s

enhances risk of stillbirth & infections

Piaget’s Cognitive Development Stages

1. sensorimotor (birth-2yrs)

2. preoperational (2-yrs)

3. concrete operational (7-11yrs)

4. formal operational (11-15yrs)

Sensorimotor Stage

Piaget

• coordinate sensations with movements

• objective permanence (objects exist even when not seen)

Preoperational

Piaget

• symbolic thinking (words & images)

• intuitive reasoning

• egocentrism (difficulty seeing other’s perspectives)

Concrete Operational

Piaget

• conservation

• reversibility & classification skills

Formal Operational

Piaget

• abstract & idealistic thought

• hypothetical reasoning

Temperament

individual’s behavioral style & characteristic ways of responding

1. easy

2. difficult

3. slow to warm up

Temperament Traits

• effortful control/self regulation

• inhibition

• negative affectivity

Attachment

close emotional bond between an infant & its caregiver

• may provide important foundation for subsequent development

Secure Attachment

infants used the caregiver as a secure base

• most infants

Insecure Attachment

infants have an unstable & unreliable relationship with caregiver

• avoidant & anxious/ambivalent

Authoritarian Parenting

Baumrind

• restrictive, parent exhorts the child to follow directions

• controlling & punitive

• likely to occur in families under financial stress

• may be affected by culture

• children may lack social skills, show poor initiative, & compare themselves with others

Authoritative Parenting

Baumrind

• parent encourages the child to be independent but still places limits & controls on behavior

• warm & nurturing

• correlated with child’s social competence, social responsibility, & self reliance

Neglectful Parenting

Baumrind

• lack of parental involvement

• correlated with less social competence, lack of respect for others, poor self control

Permissive Parenting

Baumrind

• placement of few limits on the child’s behavior

• correlated with child’s poor social competence, lack of respect for others, poor self control

Cross Sectional Studies

different ages, one time point

• problem: cohort effects

Longitudinal Studies

same participants assessed over a lengthy period of time

• study developmental change

• problem: difficult to do, time consuming

Resilience

a person’s ability to recover from or adapt to difficult times

• resilient children become capable adults

Prenatal Development

1. germinal period

2. embryonic period

3. fetal period

Germinal Period

weeks 1-2

• conception & zygote

Embryonic Period

weeks 3-8

• cell differentiation & start of organ formation

Fetal Period

months 2-9

• increase in organ functioning & can be affected by environmental insults

Teratogens

agents that can disrupt the development of the fetus

• nicotine, alcohol, illnesses/viruses, STI’s

Effects of teratogens depend on

1. timing of exposure

2. genetic characteristics

3. postnatal environment

Reflexes that persist throughout life

coughing & yawning

Reflexes that disappear with neurological development

gripping, rooting, startle

Motor Skills

locomotion (sitting, crawling, walking)

• reach & grasp

Preferential Looking

give “choice” & measure preferences

• longer gaze = preference or recognition

Myelination

begins prenatally & continues well into adolescence & adulthood

• wiring insulation - speeds up communication between neurons

Synaptic Connections

increase dramatically during childhood

Pruning

removal or displacement of unused synapses

• makes the brain more efficient

Brain Mass

increases dramatically

Children actively construct their cognitive world using

schemas, assimilation, & accommodation

• Piaget

Schemas

concepts or frameworks that organize info.

Assimilation

apply old (existing) schemas to new experiences

Accommodation

adjust/alter schemas to new info.

Harlow Study

infant monkeys

• infants prefer cloth mother over food

• contact comfort is critical to attachment

John Bowlby

infant relationships with caregiver lays groundwork for future relationships

Mary Ainsworth

strange situation

• secure attachment vs. insecure attachment

Erik Erikson

socioemotional development

• each stage represents a developmental task that must be resolved

1. Trust vs. Mistrust

childhood/infancy

• needs met by sensitive caregivers

2. Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt

childhood/toddler

• discover & assert will of their own; independence

3. Initiative vs. Guilt

childhood/preschool

• challenged to assume responsibility

4. Industry vs. Inferiority

childhood/school age

• mastering knowledge & intellectual skills

5. Identity vs. Role Confusion

adolescence

• strong sense of self

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation

young adult

• healthy relationships

7. Generativity vs. Stagnation

middle adulthood

• contributing to society/family

8. Integrity vs. Despair

late adulthood

• sense of fulfillment in life

Marcia’s Identity Statuses

1. diffusion - no exploration or commitment

2. foreclosure - commitment without exploration

3. moratorium - exploration without commitment

4. achievement - commitment after exploration

Kohlberg Moral Development

what we say & do are not always consistent

• moral dilemmas & analyzed responses

Preconventional

Kohlberg

• behavior guided by punishments & rewards

Conventional

Kohlberg

• standards learned from parents & society

Postconventional

Kohlberg

• contracts, rights, & abstract principles

Adolescence

starts 10-12yrs & ends 18-21yrs

• puberty

• early brain - amygdala (emotions)

• late brain - prefrontal cortex (reasoning & decision making/risk taking)

Early Adulthood

20s - peak of physical development & 30s - decline in strength/speed

Middle Adulthood

hair loss, most lose height, gain weight, menopause

Late Adulthood

accumulated wear & tear, less ability to repair & rejuvenate

Cellular Clock Theory

max number of cell divisions possible

• predicts human life span of about 120yrs

• shortening telomeres

Free Radical Theory

causes DNA & cell damage

Hormonal Stress Theory

stress hormones linger longer

Aging Brain

some new brain cells grow in hippocampus & olfactory bulb

• sustained aerobic exercise might lead to higher levels of neurogenesis

• reduced lateralization of brain function - both hemispheres used more equally

Motivation

the force that moves people to behave, think, & feel the way they do

• energizes, directs, & sustains behavior

Instinct

an innate biological patter of behavior that is assumed to be universal throughout a species

Drive

an aroused state that occurs because of a physiological need

Need

a deprivation that energizes the drive to eliminate or reduce the deprivation

Yerkes-Dodson Law

the psychological principle stating that performance is best under moderate arousal

Anorexia Nervosa

relentless pursuit of thinness through starvation

• more common in females

• intense fear of gaining weight & distorted body image

Bulimia Nervosa

follows a binge & purge eating pattern

• more common in females

• feelings of shame & disgust

Binge Eating Disorder

recurrent episodes of eating more food in a short period of time than most people would eat

• lack of control

• most common

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

human needs must be satisfied in a specific sequence

1. physiological needs

2. safety

3. love & belonging

4. esteem

5. self actualization

Self Actualization

develop one’s full potential

Self Determination

all humans have basic needs: competence, relatedness, autonomy

1. competence - self efficacy, mastery, expectations for success

2. relatedness - warm relations with others, need to belong

3. autonomy - independence & self reliance

Intrinsic Motivation

based on internal factors (competence, relatedness, autonomy) & curiosity, challenge, fun, organismic needs

Extrinsic Motivation

involves external activities such as rewards & punishments

Drive Reduction Theory

needs, drive, homeostasis

• ex: need - food, drive - hunger, drive reducing behavior - eating (homeostasis is restored)

Biology of Hunger

• gastric signals - stomach contractions & cholecystokinin (CCK)

• blood chemistry - glucose, insulin, leptin

Brain Processes in Hunger

• lateral hypothalamus - stimulates eating

• ventromedial hypothalamus - reduces hunger & restricts eating

  • neurotransmitters - serotonin

Rates of obesity in the world

• highest - Mexico, Chile, US

• lowest - Japan & South Korea

Past research in eating & obesity

• emotional state

• external food cues

Current research in eating & obesity

• social & economic factors

• evolutionary factors/taste preferences

• portion sizes

• mindless eating

Self Regulation

process by which an organism controls behavior to pursue important objectives

Goal Setting

specific, moderately challenging, long term purpose, short term accomplishment

Delayed Gratification

resisting a small reward now for a bigger reward later

Impulsivity

tendency to act rashly

Procrastination

putting off actions on a goal

Emotion

a feeling, or affect that can involve physiological arousal, conscious awareness, & behavioral expression

Sympathetic Nervous System

arouses

Parasympathetic Nervous System

calms

What nervous system are the sympathetic & parasympathetic part of?

autonomic nervous system

Polygraph

measures SNS activity

• heart rate, breathing, skin conductance level

James-Lange Theory

emotions result from physiological reactions

1. stimulus - you see a bear

2. physiological arousal - heart races

3. emotion - you feel fear

Cannon-Bard Theory

physiological reactions & emotions happen at the same time

1. stimulus - you see a bear

2. physiological arousal & emotion - your heart races and you feel fear at the same time

Two Factor Theory

your body reacts, then your brain labels that arousal based on emotion

1. stimulus - you see a bear

2. arousal - heart races

3. cognitive labeling - “i’m in danger”

4. emotion - you feel fear

Primacy Debate

• Lazarus - cognitive appraisal/interpretation determines emotions & feelings

  • Zajonc - some emotions are automatic, cognition not always needed

Classifying Emotions

• valence - positive vs. negative (good/bad feeling)

• arousal - high vs. low (intensity/energy level)