Developmental Psychology and Learning Theories

Vocabulary practice flashcards covering developmental psychology stages, linguistic development, parenting styles, and learning principles including classical and operant conditioning.

Stability vs. change

A debate in developmental psychology concerning whether personality traits are set or continue throughout life, or if they change due to family and environment.

Continuous vs. discontinuous development

A debate regarding whether development is gradual, cumulative, and smooth, or consists of distinct, abrupt stages.

Teratogens

Substances or factors that can cause birth defects or abnormalities in a developing embryo or fetus.

Fine motor coordination

Small, precise movements involving specific muscles.

Gross motor coordination

Large movements involving large muscle groups.

Rooting reflex

A reflex where a baby turns their head and opens their mouth when the corner of their mouth is touched or stroked.

Visual cliff

A tool used to test depth perception in infants.

Critical/sensitive periods

A specific, limited developmental time frame shortly after birth or during early childhood when the brain is exceptionally sensitive to environmental stimuli.

Adolescence

A transitional developmental period from childhood to adulthood, spanning roughly from puberty to independent adulthood.

Puberty

A rapid, intense surge of hormones causing physical maturation.

Primary sex characteristics

Physical traits that make sexual reproduction possible, including ovaries, testes, and external genitalia.

Secondary sex characteristics

Non-reproductive physical traits that emerge during puberty without being directly involved in reproduction.

Menarche

The first menstrual period.

Spermarche

The first ejaculation of semen.

Menopause

The stopping of menstruation.

Sensorimotor stage

Jean Piaget's first stage of cognitive development ($0$-$2$ years old) where children learn through senses and actions.

Preoperational stage

Jean Piaget's second stage of cognitive development ($2$-$7$ years old) characterized by egocentrism and difficulty understanding conservation and logic.

Concrete operational

Jean Piaget's third stage of cognitive development ($7$-$11$ years old) where children think more logically about concrete events and understand conservation.

Formal operational

Jean Piaget's fourth stage of cognitive development ($12+$ years) where individuals develop abstract and hypothetical thinking regarding the future and moral issues.

Object permanence

The awareness that objects continue to exist even when they are not in sight.

Mental symbols

Internal, cognitive, and symbolic representations of external reality used to process information, such as images, concepts, and words.

Pretend play

An imaginative form of play where children use objects, actions, or roles to represent other things.

Conservation

The understanding that certain physical properties of objects—volume, mass, or number—remain the same even when outward appearance or shape changes.

Reversibility

The understanding that objects or numbers can be changed and then returned to their original state, such as knowing $3+4=7$ and $7-4=3$.

Animism

The belief that inanimate objects, such as toys or clouds, possess human-like feelings, intentions, and consciousness.

Egocentrism

A child's assumption that others see, hear, and feel exactly as they do.

Theory of mind

Thinking and understanding another person's point of view (POV).

Abstract/hypothetical thinking

The ability to reason about concepts, possibilities, and "what if" scenarios.

Zone of Proximal Development

Lev Vygotsky's concept of the learning gap between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance.

Scaffolding

Temporary support provided to learners to help them master a task beyond their current capability.

Crystallized intelligence

A person's accumulated knowledge, which increases over time.

Fluid intelligence

Raw mental processing speed and pattern recognition, which decreases over time.

Dementia

A progressive, chronic syndrome involving severe decline in memory, language, and cognitive functioning.

Language

A complex system of communication using words, symbols, or signs to express thoughts, ideas, and emotions.

Phonemes

The smallest, distinct units of sound in a language.

Morphemes

The smallest unit of language that carries meaning.

Semantics

Rules used to derive meaning from sounds, words, and sentences.

Grammar

The system of rules governing the structure and usage of a language.

Syntax

Specific rules for ordering words into sentences.

Cooing

Language development stage characterized by "ooh" and "ah" sounds.

Babbling

Language development stage where repetitive consonant-vowel combinations are produced.

One-Word Stage

Language development stage where single words are used to convey meaning.

Telegraphic Speech

Language development stage using two-word or short, condensed phrases.

Overgeneralization of language rules

A phase where children apply regular grammatical rules to irregular words, such as saying "goed" or "eated."

Ecological systems theory

An argument that human development is shaped by interconnected environmental systems.

Microsystem

The immediate environment involving home life, parents, school, friends, siblings, and neighborhood.

Mesosystem

The interaction between components of the microsystem, such as interactions between kids, teachers, and parents.

Exosystem

Environmental settings that influence development indirectly, such as mass media, social services, and the parents' workplace.

Macrossystem

The broader cultural context including values, laws, ideologies, political systems, and nationality.

Chonosystem

Historical events and environmental changes over time.

Authoritarian parenting

A domineering and dictatorial style that enforces punishments and remains unresponsive.

Authoritative parenting

A parenting style that enforces rules while providing warmth and support.

Permissive parenting

A lenient parenting style with few demands, acting more like a "friend."

Attachment

An emotional tie with another person, shown by seeking closeness and distressed separation.

Secure attachment

A state where a child greets parents with positive emotions.

Avoidant insecure attachment

A type of insecure attachment where the child may avoid parents.

Anxious insecure attachment

A type of insecure attachment characterized by confusion or apprehension.

Disorganized insecure attachment

A type of insecure attachment where the child is wary of strangers.

Temperament

An infant's innate, biologically-based style of emotional reactivity and behavioral regulation.

Separation anxiety

Distress felt by infants and young children when separated from primary caregivers.

Harlow Monkey Experiment

An experiment showing that attachment is primarily based on "contact comfort" rather than nourishment.

Parallel play

When young children play beside each other without direct interaction, sharing, or communication.

Social clock

Culturally preferred timing for major life events like careers, marriage, and children.

Emerging adulthood

Developmental stage between adolescence and full adulthood characterized by identity exploration and feeling "in-between."

Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

A theory where each developmental stage is defined by a core conflict that shapes personality and identity.

Trust and mistrust

Erikson's stage ($0$-$2$ years): Can I trust my caregiver?

Autonomy and shame and doubt

Erikson's stage ($2$-$4$ years): Can I do things myself, or am I reliant on the help of others?

Initiative and guilt

Erikson's stage ($4$-$5$ years): Is it OK for me to do things on my own?

Industry and inferiority

Erikson's stage ($5$-$12$ years): Am I competent and capable?

Identity and role confusion

Erikson's stage ($13$-$19$ years): Who am I?

Intimacy and isolation

Erikson's stage ($20$-$40$ years): Can I form meaningful relationships without losing myself?

Generativity and stagnation

Erikson's stage ($40$-$65$ years): Am I making a difference or am I just existing?

Integrity and despair

Erikson's stage ($65$-death): Have I lived a meaningful, fulfilling life?

Adverse childhood experiences (ACES)

Traumatic events before age $18$ that increase risks for long-term physical, mental, and behavioral health issues.

Identity Achievement

Status where individuals have explored various options and made a firm personal commitment to an identity.

Identity Diffusion

Status characterized by a lack of both exploration and commitment to an identity.

Identity foreclosure

Committing to an identity or values prematurely without exploring alternatives.

Identity moratorium

Status characterized by high exploration but low commitment to an identity.

Learning

A change in a subject's behavior to a given situation brought about by repeated experiences in that situation.

Classical conditioning

Associative learning where an association is made between a neutral stimulus and an involuntary natural stimulus.

Operant conditioning

Learning where voluntary behaviors increase or decrease based on rewards or punishments.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

A person, place, or thing that naturally triggers a response.

Unconditioned response (UCR)

An unlearned, natural reaction to a stimulus.

Neutral stimulus (NS)

A random stimulus that evokes no specific response initially.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

A formerly neutral stimulus that now triggers a response after being paired with a UCS.

Conditioned response (CR)

A learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus.

Acquisition

The phase where a behavior is gained through conditioning.

Extinction

The phase where a conditioned behavior is lost.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned behavior.

Stimulus discrimination

The ability to differentiate between similar stimuli for a reaction.

Stimulus generalization

The tendency to react to various stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.

Higher-order conditioning

A procedure where a conditioned stimulus is used to create a new, transferable conditioned stimulus.

Counterconditioning

Pairing a stimulus that triggers an undesired response with a new, positive stimulus.

Taste aversion

An association acquired through a single pairing of a stimulus and response, not requiring further strengthening.

One-trial conditioning

Responding to a newly learned stimulus after only one exposure.

Biological preparedness

An innate readiness to learn certain associations quickly because they are adaptive for survival.

Habituation

The conscious "tuning out" of constant, non-threatening stimuli.

Law of Effect

The principle that rewarded behaviors are more likely to be repeated, while punished behaviors are less likely.

Reinforcement

Consequences used to increase or maintain a behavior.

Positive reinforcement

Increasing behavior by adding something good.