AP Biology Exam Review Flashcards

Vocabulary flashcards for the AP Biology Exam Review.

AP Biology Exam Structure

The AP Biology Exam consists of two sections: multiple choice and free response. Both sections include questions that assess students' understanding of the big ideas, enduring understandings, and essential knowledge and their application of these through the science practices.

Multiple-Choice Section (AP Biology Exam)

The multiple-choice section accounts for half of the student's exam grade.

Free-Response Section (AP Biology Exam)

The free-response section accounts for half of the student's exam grade and includes two long questions and four short questions.

Carbon in Biological Molecules

Carbon moves from the environment to organisms where it is used to build carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, or nucleic acids. It is used in storage compounds and cell formation in all organisms.

Nitrogen in Biological Molecules

Nitrogen moves from the environment to organisms where it is used in building proteins and nucleic acids.

Phosphorus in Biological Molecules

Phosphorus moves from the environment to organisms where it is used in nucleic acids and certain lipids.

Properties of Water

Living systems depend on properties of water that result from its polarity and hydrogen bonding, including cohesion, adhesion, high specific heat capacity, polarity, universal solvent properties, low density, and capillary action.

Nucleic Acids

Biological information is encoded in sequences of nucleotide monomers. Each nucleotide has a five-carbon sugar (deoxyribose or ribose), a phosphate, and a nitrogen base (adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine, or uracil).

DNA

Double stranded, has deoxyribose, A, G, C, T and Used to store genetic information

RNA

RNA is single stranded, has ribose, A, G, C, U. Types of RNA include mRNA (copies genetic message), rRNA (attaches mRNA and makes up ribosomes), tRNA (carries amino acids), and DNA (carries genetic code)

Proteins

Monomer- amino acids (20 total types), 2=dipeptide, 3 or more= polypeptide

Protein Folding

Protein Folding- shape determines function; primary= a.a. chain; secondary= 2D shape; tertiary=globular; 3D, folds in on itself; quaternary= more than one polypeptide.

Lipids

Nonpolar molecules including fats, waxes, oils, and sterols where saturation affects structure and function. Phospholipids make up cell membranes and are amphipathic (hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions)

Carbohydrates

Composed of sugar monomers whose structure and bonding determine the properties and functions. Examples glucose, starch, glycogen and cellulose.

Nucleic Acid Directionality

Defined by the 3' and 5' carbons of the sugar in the nucleotide, which determines the direction in which nucleotides are added during DNA synthesis and transcription (5' to 3').

Protein Directionality

Have an amino (NH2) end and a carboxyl (COOH) end, with amino acids connected by peptide bonds formed through dehydration synthesis.

Most Common Elements in Living Matter

CHNOPS (Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, Sulfur)

pH Scale

Acid-base scale from 0-14, determined by the number of H+ ions; logarithmic scale (e.g., pH 4 is 10x stronger than pH 5).

Enzymes

Biological catalysts (made of protein) that speed up rate of chemical reactions by lowering activation energy required for reaction to occur

Enzyme Inhibition

Competitive inhibition (competes for active site) and non-competitive inhibition (attaches at allosteric site).

Coenzymes

Interact with enzymes to put them into the right structure to do work.

Prokaryotic Cells

Prokaryotic (Bacteria) no membrane-bound organelles, no nucleus(single; circular DNA), free ribosomes and cell wall

Eukaryotic Cells

Eukaryotic (all other living things) membrane-bound organelles ex. Chloroplasts and nucleus, multiple linear DNA, histones on DNA

Ribosomes

Small, universal structures composed of ribosomal RNA and protein, which are the site of protein synthesis.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Occurs in two forms: smooth and rough. Rough ER compartmentalizes the cell, provides mechanical support, site-specific protein synthesis and intracellular transport. Smooth ER synthesizes lipids.

Golgi Complex

Functions include synthesis and packaging of materials (small molecules) for transport (in vesicles), make lysosomes.

Mitochondria

Specialize in energy capture and transformation, have a double membrane, and contain cristae on the inner membrane for ATP production.

Lysosomes

Contain hydrolytic enzymes, important in intracellular digestion, recycling of organic materials, and programmed cell death (apoptosis).

Vacuoles

Membrane-bound sacs that play roles in intracellular digestion and waste release; in plants, they store pigments or poisonous substances and contribute to cell growth.

Chloroplasts

Organelles in algae and plants that capture energy through photosynthesis; contain chlorophyll and thylakoids organized in grana for ATP and NADPH2 production.

Animal Cell Unique Organelles

Lysosomes and Centrioles

Plant Cell Unique Organelles

Chloroplast and Cell Wall

Endosymbiotic Theory

Eukaryotic cells came from bacterial cells that lived together; evidence includes circular DNA and autonomous function of chloroplasts and mitochondria.

Cell Membranes

Cell membranes separate the internal environment of the cell from the external environment.

Fluid Mosaic Model

Cell membranes consist of a structural framework of phospholipid molecules, embedded proteins, cholesterol, glycoproteins & glycolipids.

Cell Walls

Provide a structural boundary and permeability barrier; made of cellulose in plants, peptidoglycan in prokaryotes, and chitin in fungi.

Passive Transport

Does not require energy; net movement of molecules is from high to low concentration and plays a role in import of resources and export of wastes.

Active Transport

Requires free energy (often ATP) to move molecules from low to high concentration, establishing and maintaining concentration gradients.

Exocytosis

Internal vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane to secrete large macromolecules out of the cell.

Endocytosis

The cell takes in macromolecules and particulate matter by forming new vesicles derived from the plasma membrane.

Early Earth Conditions

Provided inorganic precursors from which organic molecules could have been synthesized due to the presence of available free energy and the absence of a significant quantity of oxygen.

RNA World Hypothesis

Proposes that RNA could have been the earliest genetic material.

Origin of Life Timeline

Earth formed approximately 4.6 billion years ago (bya), environment hostile until 3.9 bya, earliest fossil evidence for life dates to 3.5 bya.

Core Processes Shared by Organisms

DNA and RNA are carriers of genetic information through transcription, translation and replication.

Structural Evidence for Eukaryotic Relatedness

Includes the cytoskeleton, membrane-bound organelles (mitochondria and/or chloroplasts), linear chromosomes, and endomembrane systems.

Active Transport

Movement of molecules across a cell membrane from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration, requiring energy.

Facilitated Diffusion

Passive transport of molecules across a cell membrane via the aid of a membrane protein (channel or carrier protein).

Osmosis

Diffusion of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane from an area of higher water concentration to an area of lower water concentration.

Passive Transport

Movement of molecules across a cell membrane without the need for energy input.

Plasma Membrane

The selectively permeable membrane surrounding a cell, composed of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.

Selectively Permeable

Quality of the plasma membrane that allows only certain molecules to pass through it.

All Living Systems

All Living Systems require constant input of free energy.

2nd Law of Thermodynamics

Living systems do not violate the second law of thermodynamics, which states that entropy increases over time.

Endothermy

he use of thermal energy generated by metabolism to maintain homeostatic body temperatures

Ectothermy

the use of external thermal energy to help regulate and maintain body temperature

Glycolysis

Glycolysis rearranges the bonds in glucose molecules, releasing free energy to form ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate, and resulting in the production of pyruvate.

Krebs Cycle

carbon dioxide is released from organic intermediates ATP is synthesized from ADP and inorganic phosphate via substrate level phosphorylation and electrons are captured by coenzymes

Electron Transport Chain

captures free energy from electrons in a series of coupled reactions that establish an electrochemical gradient across membranes.

Cellular Respiration Equation

C6H12O6 + 6O26CO2 + 6H2O

Kreb Cycle Reactions

Pyruvate is oxidized further and carbon dioxide is released ; ATP is synthesized from ADP and inorganic phosphate via substrate level phosphorylation and electrons are captured by coenzymes (NAD+ and FAD).

Alcohol Fermentation

example yeast cells- glucose ethyl alcohol + CO2+ NAD+

Lactic Acid Fermentation

muscle cells- glucose lactic acid + NAD+

Autotrophs capture free energy from physical sources

Photosynthetic organisms capture free energy present in sunlight.

Chemosynthetic organisms capture free energy

Chemosynthetic organisms capture free energy from small inorganic molecules present in their environment, and this process can occur in the absence of oxygen.

Heterotrophs

Heterotrophs may metabolize carbohydrates, lipids and proteins by hydrolysis as sources of free energy.

Different energy-capturing processes

Different energy-capturing processes use different types of final electron acceptors. NADP+ in photosynthesis and Oxygen in cellular respiration

Photosynthesis

The net overall equation for photosynthesis is 6 CO, + 6 H,OlightC6H12O6 +6 02. The Light Reactions (or Light-Dependent Reactions) and The Calvin Cycle (or Calvin-Benson Cycle or Dark Reactions or Light-Independent Reactions)

light intensity

As light intensity increases, so does the rate of photosynthesis.

Temperature Effect on Photosynthesis

As the temperature increases up to a certainpoint, the rate of photosynthesis increases up to a certain point

Oxygen concentration

As the concentration of oxygen increases, the rate of photosynthesis decreases.

Photorespiration

Photorespiration is primarily a problem for plants under water stress

Substrate-level phosphorylation

Energy released during a reaction, such as the breakdown of sugar molecules, is used directly to synthesize ATP. A small amount of energy is generated through this process.

Electron transfer (oxidative phosphorylation)

Energy from the movement of electrons from one molecule to another, via electron carriers, is used to synthesize ATP. Most cellular ATP is synthesized by electron transfer in the mitochondria.