AP US Government Unit 2: Congress

Bicameralism

A two-chamber legislature. It allows for different terms, powers, and representation as well as providing an extra check on legislative power

Senate

The upper chamber of Congress with 100 members (two per state) serving six-year terms, operating as a continuous legislative body with one-third elected every two years.

House of Representatives

The lower chamber of Congress with 435 members elected every two years

Enumerated Powers

Powers explicitly granted to Congress in the Constitution, including passing a budget, levying taxes, coining money, declaring war, and regulating interstate commerce.

Implied Powers

Powers not explicitly written in the Constitution but inferred through the Necessary and Proper Clause to execute enumerated powers.

Congressional Oversight

The authority of Congress to monitor, review, and supervise executive branch agencies and bureaucratic implementation of policies.

Speaker of the House

The presiding officer of the House of Representatives, elected by the entire house but is the defacto leader of the majority pary. Leads legislative operations and agenda setting. May be replaced by a majority vote in the House.

Rules Committee

A powerful House committee that establishes rules, time limits, and amendment guidelines for debating bills on the floor.

Committee of the Whole

A procedural state used by the House of Representatives to ease the passage of uncontroversial bills under more flexible operating rules.

Discharge Petition

A petition signed by a majority of House members to force a bill out of a reluctant committee onto the floor for debate - rarely used because of deference to specialization.

Deference to Specialization

members of Congress generally allow members of committees to determine the fate of bills in their committee without interference.

Filibuster

A procedural tactic used in the Senate to prolong debate and delay or prevent a vote on a bill.

Cloture

A formal Senate procedure used to end debate or a filibuster, requiring a three-fifths vote of the chamber.

Unanimous Consent

Uncontroversial bills may be passed without the need to call for a counted vote. If no one objects, it passes.

Hold

An informal request by a senator to delay or prevent a bill or nomination from coming to the floor for a vote.

Conference Committee

A temporary joint committee created to reconcile differences between Senate and House versions of the same bill.

Mandatory Spending

Federal expenditure required by existing law for entitlement programs like Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid.

Discretionary Spending

Federal spending subject to annual legislative approval for areas such as national defense, education, and infrastructure.

Pork-Barrel Legislation

Funding or provisions written into larger appropriation bills designated for specific local or district projects such as building a new bridge in Alaska.

Logrolling

An arrangement where lawmakers trade votes or political favors to mutual benefit to secure passage of legislation. It is a form of reciprocity.

reciprocity

members of congress exchange favors that could include votes for bills, support for leadership positions, sponsorships, etc.

Partisanship

Strong allegiance to a political party, often leading members of Congress to vote strictly along party lines.

Polarization

The widening ideological gap between political parties, causing attitudes to move toward opposite extremes.

Gridlock

A state of political paralysis where legislative action cannot be taken due to a lack of consensus among parties or branches.

Divided Government

A political condition where one party controls the executive branch and a different party controls one or both houses of Congress.

Lame Duck President

An elected official continuing in office during the period between the election and the inauguration of their successor, often facing diminished influence.

Gerrymandering

The drawing of legislative district boundaries to grant a distinct political advantage to a specific party or group.

Redistricting

The process of redrawing electoral district lines within a state following a census to reflect population shifts.

Trustee Model

A role conception in which an elected representative relies on their own judgment and conscience when voting on issues.

Delegate Model

A role conception in which an elected representative acts strictly as an agent voting according to the express directives of their constituents.

Politico Model

A role conception in which a representative alternates between acting as a trustee and a delegate depending on the situation.

Judicial Review

The power of the federal courts to declare legislative acts or executive actions unconstitutional

Article III

The section of the U.S. Constitution that establishes the judicial branch, including the Supreme Court and its jurisdiction.

Federalist No. 78

An essay by Alexander Hamilton arguing for an independent judiciary, life tenure for judges, and the power of judicial review.

Stare Decisis

The legal principle of adhering to established judicial precedents when deciding cases with similar facts.

Precedent

A legal decision serving as an authoritative rule or pattern in subsequent similar cases.

Life Tenure

Constitutional guarantee of lifetime appointments for constitutional judges during good behavior, insulating the judiciary from political pressure.

Judicial Activism

The philosophy that judges should actively interpret the Constitution to overturn precedent or invalidate laws to enforce constitutional principles.

Judicial Restraint

The philosophy that judges should limit the exercise of their power and defer to precedent and the decisions of elected legislatures.

Congressional Checks on the Supreme Court

limiting jurisdiction, new legislation

Presidential Checks on the Supreme Court

appoint new judges with different ideologies, delay implementation of court decisions

amendment process

the Constitution can be changed to allow something previously ruled unconstitutional; for example, the 24th amendment overturned a court ruling saying that states could set poll taxes