Social Development Exam #2

emotional self-regulation

initiating, inhibiting, or modulating internal feeling states, emotion-related physiologic responses, and emotion-related thoughts or behaviors to accomplish one’s goals

patterns in development of self-regulation strategies

a long, slow process that develops into adulthood, children become more likely to rely on themselves rather than their parents when they must delay gratification, they rely on language to manage their emotions

this is due to the increasing maturation of the nervous system as well as increased cognitive abilities

smiling

first clear sign of happiness/contentment that infants express

at birth, children do it in response to physical stimulation (full stomach, rocking, stroking, passing gas) and reflexive smiles

social smiles are directed toward people who emerge around 6-7 weeks of age

how much infants smile

depends on the social responsiveness of their environment from birth, girls smile more than boys

three perspectives on emotion development

discrete emotions theory, learning emotions theory, and functionalist theory

discrete emotions theory

emotions are innate and universal, rooted in human evolution, and based on anatomical structures

from an early age, emotions are discrete from one another and generated in different parts of the brain, with each emotion being packaged with a specific set of bodily and facial reactions

reinforces that emotions are biologically hardwired

learning emotions theory

helps to explain individual differences in emotional expression

when adults respond to a baby’s smile with positive stimulation, it reinforces the behavior, OR children can learn fears simply by observing the reactions of others

emotional responses can be shaped through both direct experiences and social learning

functionalist theory

emphasizes the role of the environment in emotional development, proposing that the primary function of emotions is to promote action toward achieving a goal

emotion signals provide feedback that guides the behavior of others, shaping social interactions

emotions are not discrete at birth, but vary based on the social environment, infants are born with generalized and basic emotions, which later differentiate into more complex emotions as they interact with their surroundings and develop goal-directed behaviors

because of the way people are treated and how they engage with the world, similar emotional expressions and reactions can emerge across individuals

primary emotions

innate, universal emotions that are present from early infancy and recognized across all human cultures

they include happiness, sadness, fear, surprise, and anger

these emotions emerge early in life, do not require prior learning, and are associated with distinct facial expressions and physiological responses

secondary emotions

emerge later in development as they require social learning and self-awareness

they include pride, shame, embarrassment, and jealousy

more complex emotions because they involve an understanding of social norms and expectations, and how one’s actions are perceived by others

emotional display rules

an implicit understanding in a culture of how and when emotions should be expressed, ex: child receiving a gift that they don’t like but still smiling and saying thank you to be polite

James Marcia’s four identity status categories

identity diffusion, identity foreclosure, identity moratorium, identity achievement

identity diffusion

person has experienced neither identity crisis nor identity commitment, neither engage in exploration nor are concerned about committing themselves to a particular identity

viewed as the least mature in their identity development and their lack of caring attitude is often linked with academic problems and a sense of hopelessness

identity foreclosure

person has made a commitment without attempting identity exploration, remain committed to their childhood values and beliefs and do not use adolescence as a period to explore other potential identities

more authoritarian and inflexible and are more susceptible to extreme ideologies and movements

identity moratorium

person is actively involved in exploring different identities, but has not made a commitment, actively explore but fail to reach any resolution about who they are and what they believe and value

tend to be anxious and intense, and often have strained or ambivalent relationships with their parents or authority figures

identity achievement

person has gone through exploration of different identities and made a commitment to one, the most developmentally advanced identity outcome, is associated with several positive outcomes, including high self-esteem, cognitive flexibility, able to develop close intimate relationships with others

how to reduce prejudice and stereotyping in children

• increasing positive and non-threatening contact between members of different groups

• adults can highlight the unique characteristics of individuals rather than focusing on group differences

• school norms that promote inclusivity have been shown to foster positive attitudes toward other groups, particularly when combined with inclusive peer culture and the expectation that teachers will hold students accountable

• reducing stereotypes in media

first stage of self-description in childhood (3-4 years)

describe themselves in observable physical features, preferences, possessions, and social characteristics

second stage of self-description in childhood (5-7 years)

start focusing on their competencies

third stage of self-description in childhood (8-10 years)

more complex descriptions, focus on abilities and interpersonal attributes

first stage of self-description in adolescence

interpersonal attributes, social skills, competencies, emotions, recognize different selves in different contexts, understanding different selves in different situations

second stage of self-description in adolescence

often much introspection and preoccupation with what others think of them, begin to question self-descriptions, especially when there are contradictions

third stage of self-description in adolescence

emphasize personal beliefs, values, and moral standards, think about future and possible selves

theory of mind

having an organized understanding of how the mind works and how it influences behavior

why is theory of mind important for understanding children’s social development?

it allows children to move beyond observable actions and appearances and respond to unseen states

two benefits a younger child might experience by having an older sibling

1. older siblings serve as emotional support systems, offering comfort and companionship

2. older siblings act as essential teachers, using demonstrations to help their younger siblings learn new skills

benefit an older sibling can gain from having a younger sibling

older siblings show less aggression after the birth of a sibling, and their bond strengthens as they continue to age together, siblings confide in each other fostering a lifelong relationship built on trust and mutual support

are only children denied benefits that those with siblings have?

many of the advantages that siblings provide can still be found through other relationships, ex: only children form strong bonds with their friends who can offer similar emotional support and guidance as a sibling might

part-time/limited cohabitation

begins for convenience, typically starts without any long-term commitment, commonly referred to friends with benefits, marriage is not usually the goal and many couples do not marry

if they do marry, it often ends in divorce, particularly for those who have experienced multiple limited cohabitation relationships

premarital cohabitation

frequently seen as a trial marriage, and if doesn’t lead to marriage, the couple usually splits up, couples who marry after cohabiting often report lower satisfaction in their marriages and face a higher risk of divorce

substitute marriage

long-term commitment without legal marriage, often found in older couples concerned about estate planning or losing financial benefits if they marry, however its becoming more common among younger couples as well

prelude to marriage

describes couples who live together for a short time before marriage, having already committed to getting married, this arrangement does not show an increased risk of divorce

developmental problems children face when their parents have a great deal of conflict in their marriage

when conflict occurs in the early years, the children are unlikely to develop emotionally secure attachments to their parents,

if conflict occurs in later years, the children are likely to become aggressive or depressed

when kids witness intense and destructive conflicts between their parents suffered from emotional insecurity, depression, anxiety, behavior problems, relationship difficulties, and poor emotional regulation

changes in the American family

studies show the median age which couples marry has been rising for the past several decades, women under the age of 20 at the time of marriage are three times more likely to divorce than those married in 30s, couples are also waiting longer to have children and if they decide to have children, they are having fewer children

associative play

interaction in which young children share toys, materials, and sometimes conversations, but are not engaged in a joint project, children do not cooperate to achieve shared goals, common in 3-4 year olds

cooperative play

children share goals and work together to achieve them, more common in children ages 4-5 years old, encourages children to solve conflicts and make decisions in real time

parallel play

playing side-by-side, little interaction, no shared goals, common in 2 year olds and diminishes dramatically across 3-4 years of age

sociodramatic pretend play

scripted fantasy complementary roles, play becomes more cognitively complex with age, predicts future social competencies in western cultures, there is some in 3 year olds, but more common and complex occurs in children ages 6-7

popular children

those who receive the largest number of most-liked nominations and the fewest least0liked ones

majority are friendly towards their peers and well liked, tend to be above average in aggression and use it to obtain their goals

rejected children

receive many least-liked nominations and few most-liked nominations, have poor self-control and exhibit frequent aggression and behavior problems, prone to hostile and threatening behavior, can be withdrawn-rejected

neglected children

receive few most-liked and few least-liked votes, they display relatively few behaviors that differ significantly from many other children, they appear to be neglected mainly because they aren’t noticed

controversial children

receive a larger number of most-liked nominations and a large number of least-liked nominations, tend to have characteristics of both popular and rejected children

average children

receive some of both types of nomination but not as many most-liked noms as popular children

stability of a child’s status

popular or rejected children are stable types over short time periods (weeks or months), over time, the sociometric stability of rejected children is generally higher than that of popular, neglected, or controversial children and may increase as the child ages

boy friendships

• between 14-16, form less close friendships than girls

• seem to be more concerned with peer hierarchies, status issues, and authority

• choose to develop more acquaintances than close friends

• more integrated into peer group structure

girl friendships

• have a greater need for people to confide in and trust

• loyalty is more important, so they tend to form more best friends

• more integrated in clique structure

age-related changes in children’s conceptions of friendship

reflect differences in how children think and express their ideas rather than in how they view friendships

early childhood friendships

primary concerns are to maximize excitement, entertainment, and enjoyment through play

middle childhood friendships

primary goals are to be included by peers, avoid rejection, and present oneself to others in a positive way, mainly communicate to share gossip with others

adolescent friendships

primary concerns are to explore, know, and define themselves, they communicate with their friends to solve problems and be vulnerable