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The Grand Canal
A major man-made waterway in China (Sui–Tang era) linking the Yellow and Yangtze rivers to move grain and goods; it supported political centralization and internal trade.
Champa Rice
A fast-ripening, drought-resistant rice from Champa introduced to Song China that enabled double-cropping, higher yields, and population growth.
Confucianism
A Chinese ethical-political system emphasizing filial piety, hierarchical relationships, ritual, education, and merit-based governance (civil service exams).
abbasid Caliphate
an Islamic caliphate (Baghdad, 750–1258 CE) that oversaw a cultural and scientific flourishing and facilitated translation and trade across Afro-Eurasia. noted for the golden age of islam
House of Wisdom
An Abbasid-era center in Baghdad for translation, scholarship, and scientific research where Greek, Persian, and Indian texts were studied and expanded.
Mamluk Sultanate
A regime of former slave soldiers ruling Egypt and Syria (1250–1517) that defended the region from Mongols/Crusaders and controlled trade routes. emerged from the fragmentation of the Abbasid caliphate
Seljuk Empire
A Turkic Muslim dynasty (11th–12th c.) that controlled Persia and Anatolia, defended Sunni orthodoxy, and whose victory at Manzikert opened Anatolia to Turkic settlement
Delhi Sultanate
A series of Muslim dynasties (1206–1526) centered at Delhi that established Islamic rule in northern India and influenced administration, architecture, and cultural exchange
Monotheism
The belief in a single god (example traditions: Judaism, Christianity, Islam); it shaped universalist religious claims, law, and political theology.
Sufism
Mystical currents within Islam emphasizing personal union with God, devotional practices (dhikr), Sufi orders (tariqas), and popular religious outreach.
Bhakti Movement
A South Asian devotional movement (medieval) stressing personal devotion to a deity in vernacular languages, often opposing caste exclusivity and orthodox ritualism.
Vijayanagara Empire
A major South Indian Hindu kingdom (c.1336–1646) centered at Vijayanagara/Hampi that resisted northern Islamic states and promoted trade, art, and temple architecture.
Khmer Empire
A Southeast Asian state (c.9th–15th c.) centered at Angkor, noted for monumental temples (Angkor Wat) and extensive hydraulic systems supporting wet-rice agriculture.
Buddhist Monasticism
Monastic institutions (monasteries/viharas) where monks and nuns lived by the Vinaya, preserved teachings, provided education, and served as economic centers.
Mahayana & Theravada Buddhism
Two major Buddhist streams: Theravada emphasizes monastic discipline and individual liberation (Southeast Asia); Mahayana emphasizes bodhisattvas and universal salvation (East Asia).
Mayan City-States
Independent polities in Mesoamerica (Classic Maya, c.250–900 CE) with monumental pyramids, hieroglyphic writing, calendars, and elite ritual-political systems.
Aztec/Mexica Empire
A central Mexican empire (14th–16th c.) based at Tenochtitlan that ruled by tribute, had complex markets, a stratified society, and ritual human sacrifice.
Inca An Andean empire
(c.1438–1533) centered on Cusco with state-administered agriculture, terracing, an extensive road system, the mita labor levy, and quipu record-keeping.
Chaco Canyon & Mesa Verde
Major Ancestral Puebloan centers in the U.S. Southwest (c.900–1300): Chaco for great houses and roads; Mesa Verde for cliff dwellings and communal kivas.
Cahokia
The largest pre-Columbian city north of Mexico (Mississippian culture, near St. Louis, c.600–1400) known for earthen mounds (Monks Mound) and complex chiefdom organization.
Human Sacrifice Ritual
killing practiced in various societies (e.g., Aztecs, some Maya, ancient Near East) intended to appease deities, legitimize rulers, or mark rites of passage; meanings vary by culture.
Great Zimbabwe
A medieval southern African city (c.11th–15th c.) famous for massive stone enclosures and its role in gold trade linking the interior to the Swahili coast and Indian Ocean.
Hausa Kingdoms
A cluster of city-states in the Sahel/northern Nigeria (Kano, Katsina) involved in trans-Saharan trade, urban craft production, and Islamic scholarship.
Ethiopia (medieval)
A long-lived Christian highland kingdom (Aksum legacy and Solomonic dynasties) with Red Sea trade links, distinctive Christian practices, and rock-hewn churches (Lalibela).
Mali
A wealthy West African empire (c.13th–16th c.) controlling gold-salt trade routes, founded by Sundiata Keita, with cultural and scholarly centers like Timbuktu.
Mansa Musa
14th-century emperor of Mali (r. c.1312–1337) famed for immense wealth and his lavish 1324 Hajj that displayed Mali’s gold and boosted Timbuktu’s prestige.
Feudalism
A decentralized European medieval system where lords granted land (fiefs) to vassals in exchange for military service and mutual obligations, structuring politics and social rank.
Manorialism
The agrarian-economic system tied to feudalism: manors where peasants (serfs) worked lord’s land in exchange for protection and access to plots for subsistence.
The Dark Ages & The Renaissance
“Dark Ages” is an older, now-criticized label for early medieval Europe (5th–10th c.); the Renaissance (14th–17th c.) was a revival of classical learning, arts, and humanism originating in Italy.