Humanities Unit 4 - Ancient Worlds

Civilisation

A complex human society, often urban, with organised government, social classes, art, technology, and writing

Key features of a civilisation

• Cities: Large population centres.

• Organised Government: Leaders and laws.

• Complex Religions: Belief systems and rituals.

• Job Specialisation: People do different jobs (farmers, builders, soldiers).

• Social Classes: Groups of people with different statuses.

• Arts & Architecture: Unique buildings, art, and crafts.

• Public Works: Roads, bridges, irrigation systems.

• Writing: A system for recording information

Ancient Mesopotamia

c.3500 BCE - 539 CE

Located between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers (Modern-day Iraq)

One of the earliest civilisations.

Key Contributions:

• Cuneiform: One of the first writing systems.

• Wheel: Invented for transportation and pottery.

• Plow: Revolutionised farming.

• Ziggurats: Large temple structures.

• Hammurabi's Code: One of the first written law codes

Ancient Egypt

c 3100 BCE - 30 CE

Developed along the Nile River in Africa

Ruled by powerful pharaohs

Key Contributions:

• Pyramids: Giant tombs for pharaohs.

• Hieroglyphics: Picture-based writing system.

• Papyrus: Early paper made from reeds.

• Mummification: Preserving bodies for the afterlife.

• Calendar: Developed a 365-day calendar.

Ancient India

c. 2500 BCE - 1200 CE

Located along the Indus River (modern day Pakistan and India)

Famous for well planned cities like Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa

Key Contributions:

• City Planning: Grid streets, impressive drainage systems, public

baths.

• Standardised Weights & Measures: Used for trade.

• Early Plumbing: Some of the first civilisations with private

bathrooms.

• Mysterious writing system (undeciphered).

Ancient China

c. 2070 BCE - 220 CE

Began along the Yellow River (Huang he).

Ruled by different dynasties (families of rulers)

Key Contributions:

• Silk Production: Created the famous "Silk Road" trade route.

• Paper: Invented around 105 AD.

• Great Wall of China: Built to protect from invaders.

• Confucianism & Taoism: Important philosophies.

Ancient Greece

c. 800 BCE - 600 CE

Developed on a peninsula and many islands in the Mediterranean Sea.

Famous city-states like Athens and Sparta.

Key Contributions:

• Democracy: Idea of government by the people.

• Philosophy: Great thinkers (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle).

• Olympics: Athletic games.

• Theater: Developed plays (comedies and tragedies).

• Architecture: Columns (Doric, Ionic, Corinthian).

Ancient Rome

753 BCE - 476 CE

Began as a small city in Italy, grew into a huge empire.

Known for its powerful army and engineering.

Key Contributions:

• Republic/Empire: System of government and vast territory.

• Roads & Aqueducts: Master engineers, built long-lasting

structures.

• Concrete: Invented a strong building material.

• Latin Language: Basis for many modern European languages.

• Roman Law: Influenced legal systems around the world

Timeline of Rome

Roman Time Periods - Regal

753 BCE - 509 BCE

Rome was ruled by kings

Roman Time Periods - Republican

509 BCE - 27 BCE

Rome was governed by elected officials

Roman Time Periods - Imperial

27 BCE - 476 CE

Rome was ruled by emperors

Hierarchy

A system where people are organised into different levels of power and status.

(Roman) Citizen

A person who belonged to Rome and had legal rights and responsibilities 

(Roman) Non-citizen

A person living in the Roman Empire who did not have the same rights as Roman citizens 

The Social Hierarchy

Emperor

Patricians

Equites

Plebeians

Peregrini

Freedmen

Slaves

Patricians

• a small, elite group of wealthy landowners 

• were descendants of ruling class of Rome 

• only married other patricians 

• held leadership positions; could interpret and veto the law 

• did not take part in trade or commerce

Equites

• were high ranking citizens in the military, e.g knights and cavalry of Roman army 

• were initially made up of patrician men, but over time wealthy plebieans who provided their own horse could also join 

• were influential in politics and business 

Plebeians (middle/lower class) 

• comprised most of the population 

• were considered lower class, with jobs such as shopkeeper, artisan, soldier or farmer 

• some were property owners and others were poor; both groups took part in the law through a citizens’ assembly 

• in 494 BCE, revolted against the patricians; over the next 200 years, they gained more rights including the right to marry a patrician and run for government positions 

Peregrini (non-citizens)

• were free men from outside Rome 

• had some rights, but not those of citizens, e.g could conduct business and marry citizens 

• by second century CE, made up 80% of the Empire’s population 

• were given full Roman citizenship in 212 CE 

Freedmen (Liberti)

• were slaves who were set free or paid for freedom 

• had a restricted form of citizenship 

• were obliged to keep working for their master, often taking the master’s family name 

• could run small shops or farms 

Slaves

• had no rights  

• were prisoners of war, foreigners or people sold by their families and bought as ‘goods’ 

• by first century BCE, made up 30% to 40% of the population 

• most worked on farms, in mines or building roads 

• were treated cruelly and had a life expectancy of 17 years 

Slaves captured through warfare

Capturing prisoners during military expansion was a primary engine of the slave trade. Victorious generals brought back hundreds of thousands of captives from campaigns in Gaul, Carthage, and Greece, reshaping Roman the economy into a major slave society. 

Slaves used for agricultural labourers

Formed the economic backbone of ancient Rome, driving production on massive rural estates (latifundia). Field slaves endured brutal conditions, often working in chains from dawn until dusk, housed in prison-like barracks (ergastula), and treated as expendable property rather than human beings. 

Domestic Servants (Slaves)

Lived inside wealthy households, performing daily chores, cooking, cleaning, and managing family finances. While they generally experienced better material conditions than rural or mine workers, they remained legal property with no rights and were subject to the total control and abuse of their owners.

Gladiators

Enslaved people, prisoners of war, or condemned criminals forced to fight in arenas for public entertainment. Despite their low legal status as property, successful ones received elite medical care, ate high-energy diets, and could win fame, wealth, or their freedom.

Freedmen

Former slaves who gained their freedom through a legal process called manumission. Upon release, they typically became Roman citizens with certain legal and political restrictions, forming a vital, industrious part of the Roman economy as merchants, craftsmen, and managers.

Why slavery mattered in the Roman Empire

It formed the foundational engine of its economy, wealth creation, and social structure. Enslaved people provided the essential labor for agriculture, mining, construction, and elite households, effectively functioning as the infrastructure that allowed Roman society to expand and thrive.

Pompeii

A thriving Roman city near Mount Vesuvius. Without warning, the volcano erupted on 24 August 79 CE, sending ash, rock and hot gases high into the sky. Over the next 24 hours, it was buried beneath metres of volcanic ash.

Why was Pompeii significant?

• Provides one of the best-preserved examples of a Roman city. 

• Buildings, streets, food, artwork and everyday objects were preserved beneath the ash.  

• Archaeologists have uncovered these remains to learn about life in Ancient Rome. 

Reasons why the Roman Army was one of the strongest fighting forces in the Ancient World

Well trained - soldiers trained regularly, even when there was no war

Disciplined - soldiers were expected to obey orders at all times

Organised - soldiers had a clear role and knew where to stand during battle

Well equipped - soldiers carried high quality weapons, armour and shields

The Roman Army in Numbers

• A Roman legion contained about 5,000 soldiers. 

• There were around 30 legions across the empire. At Rome’s peak there were 50 legions. 

Roman Soldier Uniform - Helmet

Galea: Used for protecting the head

Roman Soldier Uniform - Shield

Scutum: Protected soldier and was used to form shield walls such as the testudo.

Roman Soldier Uniform - Armour

Lorica segmentata: Protecting the head and body from enemy attacks. Is called ‘segmentata’, meaning ‘segments’ (or ‘parts’), as it was created out of different parts that were joined together to allow flexibility.

Roman Soldier Uniform - Sandals

Caligae: Allowed soldiers to march long distances.

Roman Soldier Uniform - Sword

Used for close hand-to-hand fighting

Roman Soldier Uniform - Dagger

Pugio: A small weapon used as a backup 

Roman Soldier Uniform - Spear

Thrown before close combat to weaken the enemy. 

Trajan’s Column

• Built in AD 113 to celebrate Emperor Trajan's victory in the Dacian Wars.  

• The column is covered with stone reliefs— carvings that stand out from the surface— showing Roman soldiers in battle. 

• Today, it helps historians understand Roman warfare, weapons, armour and military tactics. 

Colosseum

Opened in 80 CE 

 • Could hold around 50,000 spectators 

 • Used for gladiator contests, animal hunts and public spectacles 

 • One of the largest amphitheatres ever built 

Seating in the Colosseum

• Entry was free for all Roman citizens 

• Places were divided according to social status – the seats at the top were for the common people, with distinct sections for men and women. 

• The nearer to the arena, the higher social status 

Arena - The Colosseum

• Stage for shows 

• Floor was made out of a mixture of brick and wood 

• The floor was sometimes covered in sand, which gladiators used to blind others before killing them 

Underground areas - the Colosseum

• Housed lifts and hoists with counter-weights, which were used to hoist up animals and gladiators who burst into the arena through trapdoors 

• There was an underground passageway which was linked directly to the Gladiators’ barracks 

Religion in Ancient Rome

The Romans worshipped multiple gods and they firmly believed that these gods had direct influence over their daily lives. They performed rituals and sacrifices to appease them and sought favor for various aspects of life, including agriculture, warfare, and family.

Christianity in Ancient Rome

For about 300 years, Romans who converted to Christianity were often tortured or killed. However, St Paul helped to spread Christianity’s message throughout the empire. It appealed to the poor masses and slaves as the religion preached to help those most in need.  

Secret gatherings would occur in underground tombs with growing numbers. By 313 CE, Christianity was legal and churches were built in Rome. By 380 CE< Emperor Theodosius made it Rome’s official religion. 

Major Roman Gods and Goddesses

Conspirator

A person who secretly plans with others to do something, often to overthrow or harm someone.

Assassination

The planned killing of an important person, usually for political reasons.

Civil War

A war fought between groups within the same country.

Dictator

A ruler given complete power over a country.

Life in Ancient Rome - Urban Planning

• Massive Networks for roads 

• Aqueducts, water from nearby mountains, rivers and lakes 

• This was important to everyday life because it improved trade, public health, and living conditions throughout the empire 

Life in Ancient Rome - Roman Housing

• Homes varied based on a person’s social status or wealth 

• They were generally colourful houses 

• Roman villas were large country houses for wealthy people, which were usually surrounded by farmland. 

• Ordinary Romans lived in insulaes (apartments), which were crowded, noisy and uncomfortable. 

• This was important to everyday life because housing provided Romans a place to live, and how social status affected how they lived. 

Life in Ancient Rome - Fashion

• People who were wealthier could afford better fabrics 

• An adult male citizen wore a toga 

• Married women citizens wore a stola 

• The colour purple was valuable, as the dye was rare 

• This was important to everyday life because it showed a person’s status through fashion. Jewellery, hair styles, and footwear were a way to show status.  

Life in Ancient Rome - Education

• Highly valued in Ancient Rome 

• Not every child had the opportunity to attend school 

• Children from wealthy families were often taught by private tutors or attended schools where they learned reading, writing and mathematics 

• Boys generally received more formal education than girls, although girls from wealthy families sometimes received private tutoring at home 

• This was important to everyday life as education prepared younger Romans for responsibilities when in adulthood and helped preserve Rome’s traditions and culture. 

• Being able to speak confidently was an important skill for anyone hoping to become a politician, lawyer or government official 

Life in Ancient Rome - Roman Baths

• Enter baths: specific routine – exercise in open courtyard, enter to tepidarium 

• Heated room – caldarium 

• This was important to everyday life, because hygeine was important. It also allowed a place for people to connect, meet new people, exercise, and business. 

Life in Ancient Rome - Food and Dining

• Bread was the main food, which was often eaten with olives, vegetables, cheese or fruit 

• Markets were a place to buy food 

• Banquets were hosted by ‘rich people’, used to impress guests. They had lots of food and could last for hours. 

• This was important to everyday life, as food was essential for survival. These banquets showed wealth, hospitality, and social status. 

The Fall of Ancient Rome

• Rome did not fall because of one single problem 

• Political, economic, military and social problems all made the empire weaker 

• As these problems grew, Rome became less able to defend itself and govern its people 

• In 476 CE, the last Western Roman Emperor was removed from power, marking the end of the Western Roman Empire