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Columbian Exchange

Columbian Exchange

A transfer of plants, animals, ideas, people, and diseases throughout the Americas, Europe, and Africa as a result of Columbus’s voyages (1492).

Ecomienda System

A labor system implemented by the Spanish crown in the Americas during the early colonial period (16th century). Spanish colonists were granted control over a group of Indigenous people in exchange for protection and Christian teachings. This led to the exploitation and abuse of indigenous people.

Mestizo

Refers to individuals of mixed European (Spanish) and Indigenous descent. It emerged from the Spanish colonization of the Americas in the 16th century and was most prominent during the Spanish colonial caste system, a social hierarchy based on race and ethnicity.

Pueblo Revolt (1680)

A major uprising of the Indigenous Pueblo peoples against Spanish colonial rule in present-day New Mexico. It was one of the most successful Indigenous rebellions in the history of the Americas. Driven by decades of Spanish oppression, forced labor, and religious persecution, it led to the temporary expulsion of settlers and missionaries.

Mercantilism

An economic theory based on the belief of a favorable balance of trade - maximizing amount of exports and accumilating wealth, and precious metals (gold, silver). —> Colonies exist for the benefit of the mother country by providing raw materials and serving as markets for finished goods.

Three Sisters

Refers to the three main agricultural crops of Native American societies: maize (corn), beans, and squash.

Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)

An agreement between Spain and Portugal, median by the Pope, to try to resolve conflicts over newly-found land outside of Europe during the Age of Exploration.

Smallpoz

A deadly disease brought by European explorers, which nearly decimated the Native American populations.

Iroquois Confederacy

A powerful and influential alliance of Indigenous nations in the northeastern region of North America. (16th century)

Joint-Stock Company

A business structure that emerged during the Age of Exploration - Investors pool together resources to form a venture. They can then become shareholders who can buy and sell company shares (mainly overseas trade and colonization), their risk limited only to what they invested. Ex. The Virginia

House of Burgesses

The first democratically elected legislative assembly in the American colonies; it was founded in the Virginia colony, in 1619.

Indentured Servitude

17th century — A labor system, in which a person agrees to work without pay, usually in exchange for something. Once the conditions of the contract were met, typically after 4-7 years, they were freed. It was a common way for Europeans to immigrate to the American Colonies

Bacon’s Rebellion

Nathaniel Bacon led a significant uprising in 1676 for various reasons, but most notably a lack of a resolution pertaining to conflicts between Native Americans and English colonists from Governor William Berkeley. Both white and black colonists took up arms against government officials, and this was the first time a rebellion like this occurred.

Puritans

A religious group who sought to purify the Church of England and established settlements in New England, such as the Massachusetts Bay Colony.

Mayflower Compact

A legal agreement signed by 41 male passengers of the Mayflower in 1620, for the purpose of establishing some form of government upon arrival. It was an early form of self-governance

Middle Passage

The brutal and dehumanizing journey across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas as a part of the transatlantic slave trade.

Salutary Neglect

An unofficial policy of the British Government in the 1600s-mid 1700s allowed its colonies to develop independently with minimal British interference and self-governance.

The Great Awakening (1730s-70s)

A series of religious revivals across the colonies that emphasized emotions/personal faith and individual salvation. Encouraged people to think critically about authority and aligned with Enlightenment ideas in a religious context.

French and Indian War (1754-63)

A conflict between Britain and its colonist allies and France with Native American allies, fought primarily over territorial disputes in North America, particularly in the Ohio River Valley. The French wanted to discourage the British from settling further west. It was part of the larger Seven Years' War and ended with the Treaty of Paris in 1763, significantly shifting power in North America to the British.

Proclamation of 1763

Issued by King George III following the French and Indian War, this proclamation prohibited American colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains to prevent conflicts with Native Americans. It aimed to stabilize relations but angered colonists seeking land for expansion.

Stamp Act (1765)

A British law imposing a direct tax on all printed materials in the American colonies, including newspapers and legal documents. The act sparked widespread protests and was a significant catalyst for colonial resistance against British taxation, leading to its repeal in 1766.

Boston Massacre (1770)

A confrontation in which British soldiers fired into a crowd of colonists protesting against British rule, killing five individuals. This event was used as propaganda by colonial leaders to galvanize anti-British sentiment and unify resistance against British policies.

Intolerable Acts (1774)

A series of punitive laws enacted by the British Parliament in response to the Boston Tea Party, aimed at asserting British authority in the colonies. These acts further inflamed colonial discontent and led to the formation of the First Continental Congress.

Common Sense (1776)

A pamphlet written by Thomas Paine advocating for American independence from Britain. Published in January 1776, it argued for the colonies' right to self-governance and was influential in swaying public opinion in favor of independence.

Declaration of Independence (1776)

A document adopted on July 4, 1776, declaring the thirteen American colonies' independence from Britain. Authored primarily by Thomas Jefferson, it articulated Enlightenment ideals of individual rights and government by consent of the governed.

Republican Motherhood

A 18th-century belief emphasizing women's role in educating their children, particularly in civic virtue and republican values. It recognized women's influence in shaping the ideals of the new republic while reinforcing traditional gender roles.

Articles of Confederation

 The first written constitution of the United States, ratified during the Revolutionary War (1781). It created a weak central government that focused its power on the legislative branch, emphaszing state sovereignty with no executive or judicial branches. As a result, the government was very limited in terms of power and could enact laws but not enforce them, could not collect taxes, and regulate commerce. A direct consequence of the Articles of Confederation can be seen in Shay’s Rebellion.

Shay’s Rebellion

An armed uprising in 1786-1787 led by Massachusetts farmers, including Daniel Shays, protesting high taxes and economic injustices. The rebellion highlighted the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation and fueled calls for a stronger federal government.

Constitutional Convention

A gathering held in Philadelphia in 1787 to address the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation. Delegates ultimately drafted the U.S. Constitution, establishing a stronger federal government with checks and balances.

Great Compromise

An agreement reached during the Constitutional Convention that created a bicameral legislature, balancing representation for both large and small states. It established the House of Representatives based on population and the Senate with equal representation.

Three-Fifths Compromise

A compromise was reached during the Constitutional Convention in which three-fifths of the enslaved population would be counted for representation and taxation purposes. Gave southern states voting power while minimizing taxation. This agreement addressed the contentious issue of how to count enslaved individuals in the census.

Federalists

Supporters of the new U.S. Constitution who favored a strong central government. Key figures included Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, who argued for ratification through the Federalist Papers.

Anti-Federalists

Opponents of the U.S. Constitution who feared centralized government power and the lack of protections for individual liberties. Prominent leaders included Patrick Henry and George Mason, advocating for a Bill of Rights.

Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1791, which guarantee individual liberties and limit government power. The Bill of Rights was added to address Anti-Federalist concerns and secure the Constitution’s ratification.