LifeSpan Psych Test 1

skinner’s operant conditioning theory

consequences of a behavior produce changes in the behaviors chance of occurring again. Rewards or punishments are used to reinforce or discourage behaviors.

bandura’s social cognitive theory

Individuals learn behaviors through observation and imitation of others, and these behaviors are influenced by personal, behavioral, and environmental factors.

ethology

study of the behavior of animals in their natural habitat

Konrad Lorenz

key figure in ethology study, studied the behavior of greylag geese, focused on studying the imprinting process in which the “mother” is determined via sight on hatch

John Bowlby

stressed attachment to a caregiver over the first year of life has important consequences throughout the life span, positive and secure attachments lead to positivce childhood and adult hood, while the other side proposes negative development

bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory

development reflects the influence of several environmental systems, using five systems: micro, meso, exo, macro, and chrono.

Micro is your immediate circle.

Meso is how different parts of your immediate system connect with each other

Exo is the bigger world that affects you indirectly.

Macro is the broad cultural values, laws, and beliefs of society

Chrono is the element of time, all these systems change as you grow older and as history changes

eclectic theoretical orientation

approach that selects and uses whatever is considered the best in many theories

continuity vs discontinuity

the existence of stages for development or gradual, cumulative change

biological processes examples (related to life span development, key ones)

puberty and menopause

normative age graded influences

similar for individuals in a particular age group

normative history graded influences

common to people of a particular generation because of historical circumstances

nonnormative life events

unusual occurrences that have a major impact on the individual’s life

case study

in depth look at a single individual

biological processes

produce changes in an individuals physical nature

cognitive processes

refer to changes in an individuals thinking, intelligence, and language

socioemotional processes

changes in an individual’s relationships with other people, in emotional regulation, and in personality

periods of development - list them

prenatal period, conception to birth

infancy, birth to 18-24 months

early childhood, infancy to 5-6 yrs

middle and late childhood, 6 to 11 yrs

adolescence, 10-12 yrs to 18-22 yrs

emerging adulthood, 18 to 25 yrs

early adulthood, 20’s to 30’s

middle adulthood, 40 yrs to 60 yrs

late adulthood, 60 yrs to death

cohort effects

due to a person’s time of birth, era, or generation but not to actual age

context

all development occurs within this, can include families, schools, peers, churches etc and are affected by historical, economic, social, and cultural factors

correlation coefficient

number based on statistical analysis that is used to describe the degree of association between two variables.

higher the stronger the association between two variables

correlational research

goal is to describe the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics

cross cultural studies

compare aspects of two or more cultures

ethnicity

cultural heritage, nationality, race, religion, and language. examples include black americans, latinos, asian americans, native americans, european americans,etc

cross sectional approach

research strategy that simultaneously compares individuals of different ages

culture

encompasses the behavior patterns, beliefs, and all other products of a particular group of people that are passed on from generation to generation

descriptive research

aims to observe and record behavior

development

pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues through the human life span

erikson’s theory

eight stages of development unfold and at each stage a unique developmental task which must be resolved, the more successful they resolved these the healthier their development is

trust vs mistrust (infancy) - learn based on whether their caregivers reliably meet their needs

autonomy vs shame (early childhood) - learn to do things for themselves or they feel ashamed and doubtful

initiative vs guilt (preschool) - kids start to plan activities and play with others, but may feel guilty if overstep boundaries

industry vs inferiority (school age) - children work hard to master skills and tasks, or they feel inferior if they cant keep up

identity vs identity confusion (adolescence) - explore who they are and what they believe or they remain confused

intimacy vs isolation (young adulthood) - young adults form deep romantic and friendly relationships, or they feel lonely and isolated

generativity vs stagnation (middle adulthood) - contribute to the next generation through work and family, or they feel stuck and unproductive

integrity vs despair (late adulthood) - look back on life with satisfaction or they feel regret and despair over missed opportunities

ethnic gloss

using ethnic label in a superficial way that portrays an ethnic group as being more uniform/similar than it really is

experiment

carefully regulated procedure in which one or more factors believed to influence the behavior being studied are manipulated while all other factors are held constant

gender

refers to a mosaic of categories related to femineity and masculinity based on social and cultural norms

hypotheses

specific assertions and predictions that can be tested

information processing theory

emphasizes that individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it

laboratory

controlled setting where many of the complex factors of the real world are absent

life span perspective

views development as lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, multidisciplinary, and contextual, and as a process that involves growth, maintenance, and regulation of loss

longitudinal approach

research strategy in which the same individuals are studied over a period of time, usually several years or more

naturalistic observation

observing behavior in real world settings without attempting to manipulate or control the situation

nature vs nurture issue

extent to which development is influenced by nature and by nurture.

nature refers to an organisms biological inheritance

nurture to its environmental experiences

piagets theory

children go through four stages of cognitive development as they actively construct their understanding of the world

sensorimotor - birth to 2 yrs, deals with object permanence

preoperational - 2 to 7 yrs, deals with pretend play and selfish thinking

concrete operational - 7 to 11 yrs, deals with logical thinking and physical things

formal operational stage - 12 yrs plus, deals with abstract ideas and what if possibilites

psychoanalytic theories

describe development primarily in terms of unconscious processes that are heavily colored by emotion

Freuds theory

as children grow up, their focus of pleasure and sexual impulses shifts from the mouth to the anus and eventually to the genital. He made five distinct stages:

oral stage - birth to 1.5yrs, mouth focused

anal stage - 1.5 to 3 yrs, anus focused

phallic stage - 3 to 6 yrs, genital focused

latency stage - 6 yrs to puberty, represses sexual interest and develops social and intellectual skill

genital stage - puberty onward, sexual reawakening, source of sexual pleasure becomes someone outside the family

social cognitive theory

behavior, environment, and person/cognitive factors are key factors in development

social policy

governments course of action designed to promote the welfare of its citizens

socioeconomic status (SES)

persons position within society based on occupation, educational, economic characteristics

socioemotional processes

involve changes in an individuals relationships with other people, in emotional regulation, and in personality

stability vs change issue

involving the degree to which early traits and characteristics persist or change over time

standardized test

uniform procedures for administration and scoring

theory

an interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain phenomena and make predictions

vygotsky’s theory

sociocultural cognitive theory that emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development.

child development as inseparable from social and cultural activities.

cognitive development involves learning to use inventions of society, such as language, mathematical systems, and memory strategies.

robert siegler

leading expert on children information processing, states that thinking is information processing

argues that best way to understand how children learn is to observe them while they are learning

behavior genetics

field that seeks to discover the influence of heredity and environment on individual differences in human traits and development

behavior geneticists often study either twins or individuals who are raised in adoptive families

twin study

behavioral similarities between identical twins are compared with the behavioral similarities between fraternal twins

adoption study

discover whether the behavior and psychological characteristics of adopted children are more like those of their adoptive parents or their biological parents

home environment vs heredity contributions

Sandra Scarr

described three ways in which heredity and environment are correlated

passive correlation - parents give you both your genes and your home environment

evocative correlation - your genetically influenced traits trigger certain reactions from other people which shapes your environment

active correlation - as you get older you actively seek out environments that fit your genetic strengths and interests

epigenetic view

gilbert Gottlieb proposed that development is the result of an ongoing, bidirectional interchange between heredity and t he environment

gene x environment interaction (G x E)

interaction of a specific measured variation in DNA and a specific measured aspect of the enviornment

david moore

developmental psychologist, biological systems that generate behaviors are extremely complex, but too often these systems have been described in overly simplified ways that can be misleading

charles darwin

natural selection as the evolutionary process by which those individuals of a species that are best adapted to their environment are the ones that are most likely to survive and reproduce.

evolutionary psychology

emphasizes the importance of adaptation, reproduction, and survival of the fittest in shaping behavior

david buss

argued that just as evolution has contributed to our physical features, such as body shape, and height, it also pervasively influences how we make decisions, how aggressive we are, our fears, and our mating patterns

chromosomes

threadlike structures made up of deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA

DNA

complex molecule that has a double helix shape, like a spiral staircase, and contains genetic information

genes

units of hereditary information are short segments of DNA

mitosis

body cell reproduction, where two new cells are formed each containing the same DNA as the original (23 pairs of chromosomes)

meiosis

forms eggs and sperm (gametes), cells duplicate the chromosomes, but divide twice forming four cells each with 23 chromosomes (unpaired)

genotype

all of a persons genetic material makes this up

phenotype

observable characteristics, including physical characteristics, and psychological characteristics

dominant and recessive genes

dominant genes override the potential influence of the other gene

recessive gene exerts its influence only if the two genes of a pair are both recessive

sex linked genes

carried on the x or y chromosome

down syndrome

extra chromosome causes mild to severe intellectual disabilities and physical abnormalities

Klinefelter syndrome

an extra X chromosome causes physical abnormalities

fragile X syndrome

abnormality in the X chromosome can cause intellectual disabilities, or short attention span

turner syndrome

missing X chromosome in females can cause intellectual disabilities and sexual underdevelopment

XYY syndrome

an extra Y chromosome can cause above average height

cystic fibrosis

glandular dysfunction that interferes with mucus production, breathing and digestion are hampered, resulting in a shortened life span

diabetes

body does not produce enough insulin, which causes abnormal metabolism of sugar

hemophilia

delayed blood clotting causes internal and external bleeding

Huntington disease

CNS deteriorates, producing problems in muscle coordination and mental deterioration

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

metabolic disorder that, left untreated, causes intellectual disability

sickle-cell anemia

blood disorder that limits the body’s oxygen supply, can cause join swelling as well as heart and kidney failure

spina bifida

neural tube disorder that causes brain and spine abnmormalities

tay sachs disease

deceleration of mental and physical development caused by an accumulation of lipids in the nervous system

prenatal development

lasts approximately 266 days, begins with fertilization and ending with birth

divided into three periods: germinal embryonic, and fetal

germinal period

takes place in the first two weeks after conception

creation of fertilized egg, cell division, and attachment of multicellular organism to uterine wall

embryonic period

two to eight weeks after conception

the rate of cell differentiation intensifies, support systems for cells form, and organs develop

endoderm

inner layer of cells, develop into digestive and respiratory systems

ectoderm

outermost layer, becomes the nervous system, sensory receptors, and skin parts

mesoderm

middle layer, which becomes the circulatory system, bones, muscles, excretory system, and reproductive system

organogenesis

process of organ formation during the first two months of development

fetal period

lasts about seven months, growth and development continue the course over this period

By three months the fetus has body parts and can be identified a gender

By four months the mother will feel the fetus move

By five months the fetus will have toenail and fingernail formation

By six months the fetus will have eyes and eyelid full form and fine hair formed, the grasping reflex is present and irregular breathing movements

By the last two months of development, fatty tissues develop and functioning of various organ systems sets up

first trimester

the first three months, major organs form, zygote (till 4 weeks), embryo (at 8 weeks), fetus (at 12 weeks)

second trimester

second three months, baby will start to move

third trimester

last three months, weight gain for baby and preparation for birth, breathing movements present

neurons

nerve cells which handle information processing at the cellular level

brain development stages

neural tube - flat sheet of cells rolls up into a tube

neurogenesis - neurons are produced around 250k/minute

neural migration - neuron travel to correct locations via guide wires (glial cells)

neural connectivity - neurons start connecting to each other by growing axons and dendrites, forming synapses (connections) and begin pruning unused connections for efficiency

prenatal tests

ultrasound sonography

fetal MRI

chorionic villus sampling

amniocentesis

maternal blood screening

noninvasive prenatal diagnosis

ultra sound sonography

conducted at seven weeks and sometimes later

high frequency sound waves directed into abdomen to provide visual representation of fetus’s inner structures

chorionic villus sampling

between 10 and 12 weeks of pregnancy

screen for defects and chromosome abnormalities, tiny tissue sample from the placenta is removed and analyzed

amniocentesis

between 15 and 18 week of pregnancy

sample of amniotic fluid is withdrawn by syringe and tested for chromosomal or metabolic disorders

maternal blood screening

between 16 and 18 weeks of pregnancy

identifies pregnancies that have an elevated risk of birth defects such as spina bifida and down syndrome as well as congenital heart disease