Research Methods Notes

Flashcards for reviewing key concepts and terms in research methods.

Social Science

Important for our identity, self-understanding, and understanding inter-personal relations and society as a whole. It studies human beings in different types of society and consists of the totality of all social science disciplines.

Peter M. Blau

Conducted an important study on the dynamics of bureaucracies, examining their processes and changes, using a case study of 2 American agencies, participant observation, a questionnaire, quantitative data, and qualitative data. He used functionalism as a lens.

Reactivity/Control Effect

Knowledge may be biased/unreliable because of the participants’ reactions to being involved in a research process.

Reflexivity

Framing due to the researchers background and social experiences, alters perceptions.

Positivism

Social scientific knowledge is developed through systematic studies of positively given empirical facts about existing phenomena in society. Claims that social science can relate to facts in society in the same way natural science does to fact in nature, no inherent difference

Frankfurt School (1960s)

Emphasis on critical theory. Phenomena in society are not objective/observable facts. There are no universal laws, as social conditions may change. This school focuses on involvement and interpretation.

Metric Data

Most precise quantitative data (e.g., years).

Non-Metrical Data

Expressed in numbers/categorical data (e.g., education categories: high or low).

Mixed Methods Research

Some phenomena have both quantitative and qualitative aspects and are studied through both types of data.

Empirical Studies

Questions about facts, also facts on values (e.g., how many people agree with this statement?).

Normative Studies

Studies specific values, makes claims about how conditions should be.

Émile Durkheim: Social Facts

Observable phenomena in society. These are then treated/analyzed as things, thus can be objective. Treat them as data. Not completely free of value, social science should contribute to improvement of society.

Max Weber

Science should be based on facts, but may be affected by values. This is okay if scientists are aware of their biases.

Ontology

Social science is based on truth as a primary value. Challenges established knowledge by seeking truth.

Epistemology

Perceptions of truth in social sciences are theoretically, methodologically, and contextually founded. Their focus lies on how knowledge is developed, perception of reality is socially constructed.

Methodology

Evaluations of truth in social science are based on rational and logical criteria. Creates a common understanding on how to determine something is true. Rationality and logic as the basis of methods.

Paradigm Shift

One single study may create a completely new understanding, making previous approaches/results unimportant.

Generality

Number of units: Specific/ideographic or General/nomothetic?

Complexity

Number of features or relationships between features: Simple/univariate; More complex/bivariate; Most complex/multivariate.

Precision

Degree of accuracy in definitions of units.

Descriptive Questions

Ask how phenomena/conditions in society really are; also called exploratory.

Explanatory Questions

Why certain phenomena or conditions are the way they are. Focus lies on relationships between concepts.

Interpretive Questions

How social phenomena can be understood in a larger/complex system.

Longitudinal studies

Focus lies on change, stability, and processes in time.

Space

Similarities and differences between multiple social contexts. Is comparative in nature.

Levels

Micro, meso, macro.

Contextual Studies

Multi-level research like macro-conditions’ impact on micro conditions.

Relations

Relational research, social networks, social structures.

Conceptual/Theoretical Model

Includes relationships between specific phenomena.

Formal/Mathematical Model

Expressed in mathematical form in deductive system (Regression analysis).

Deduction

Theory => hypotheses => observation => confirmation (mostly quan).

Induction

Observation => pattern => tentative hypotheses => theory (mostly qual).

Case-Based Research

Explore, describe, and explain a phenomenon and provide detailed, context-rich insights. Useful for theory-building.

Variable-Based Research

Describe and explain relationships between variables (IVs and DVs) by identifying trends. Useful for theory-testing (large-n).

Source-Critical Assessments

Availability, Relevance, Authenticity, and Credibility.

Units of Analysis

Social elements that are emphasized in the RQ (e.g., families).

Units of Observation

Key elements while collecting data (e.g., family members).

Types of Units

Actors (individual or group), Actions (single actors but also their interaction), Opinions (statements), and Events (whether they affect the actors.)

Levels of Analysis

Micro, meso, macro.

Wrong-Level Fallacy/Ecological Fallacy

To draw false conclusions about members of an organization after studying the organization as a unit.

Formal Properties

Strong/weak ties, (in)formal, etc. (information about the relationship between units).

Substantial Aspects

What does the relation concern, how are the units connected (information about the relationship between units).

Temporal Studies

How large/small social processes progress.

Longitudinal Studies

Analyses of modes of development.

Biographical Studies

Recall data.

Qualitative Content Analysis

Documents with no comparable content at different times.

Time Series Data

Repeated questions at regular times. Combine data to express a trend. Sees them as a whole, changes are net changes.

Panel Data

At random times. Does have the problem of drop-outs. Sees respondents as individuals, changes in their answers are considered gross changes, more detailed analysis.

Cohort Analysis

Analyses on basis of people's age. Cohort has experienced a significant event at the same time.

Cohort Effect/Generation Effect

Difference between cohorts.

Age Effect/Life-Phase Effect

Within a cohort.

Temporal Fallacies

Drawing conclusions about development while studying one point in time.

Synchronous Data

1 point in time/case study.

Diachronic Data

Multiple points in time/longitudinal studies.

Special Studies

Similarities or differences between places, both geographically and about conditions in context. Societies.

Comparative Studies

Comparing different societies or conditions in different societies. At least 2 units are systematically compared to find a causal relation.

Equivalence

In order to compare particular phenomena, we must have equivalent data about these phenomena.

Linguistic Equivalence

Have the same expressions and meaning across the compared societies.

Contextual Equivalence

Different contexts, does the phenomenon have the same relevance.

Conceptual Equivalence

Do concepts have the same meaning (culture bound).

Methodological Equivalence

Do the same methods create the same kind of data.

Global Variables

They only refer to one level of the analysis.

Aggregated Variables

Variables at one level are used in the analysis as expressions of units at a higher level.

Contextual Variables

Based on one level and used in the analysis of units at a lower level.

Aggregative Fallacy

Faulty conclusions based on data about a higher level.

Atomistic Fallacy

Faulty conclusions based on data about a lower level.

Concept

An abstract/category that enables researchers clarify, categorize, and understand a phenomenon in the social world.

Variable

A characteristic that can be measured, is numeric (measurable), and they can vary between observations. Created through the operationalization of concepts.

Measurement

Process of determining the value or level of a variable

Case Study Research

Engages in an empirical inquiry that investigates a particular phenomenon in real-life within a specific bounded system. Treats cases as holistic and complex units.

Typical Case

Being representative of a larger population, what is average.

Extreme Case

Extreme version of the larger pattern/outlier. Choose a case that’s as far away from average as possible. Aim is to explain why the case is extreme.

Deviant Case

A case that does not fit the larger pattern. Aim is to explain why something is (not) happening, possibility for a new theory.

Diverse Cases

Two or more cases representing variation on a relevant condition. Cases are selected to represent the full range of values on a relevant condition/relationship.

Most Similar Systems Design

The cases are similar in nearly all areas but differ in one, why?

Most Different Systems Design

The cases differ in basically everything but have a similarity, why?

Independent Variable

A variable in the analysis of the relationship that assumes to influence another variable.

Dependent Variable

A variable in the analysis of the relationship which is assumed to be influenced by one or more variables.

Hypotheses

Statement about social phenomenon that can be tested empirically.

Null Hypothesis

There is no significant relationship (reject).

Alternative Hypothesis

There is a significant relationship between the variables (accept).

Data

Information that has been processed, systematized, and recorded in a specific form and for the purpose of a specific analysis.

Ethnographic Research/Participant Observation

Researcher is a participant in the process which is studied.

Structured Observation

No participation, observations are registered on a prepared schedule.

Unstructured Interviews

Conversations, not pre-determined questions; also, semi-structured interviews.

Qualitative Content Analysis

Discourse/narrative/opinions analysis (e.g., newspaper study).

Quantitative Content Analysis

Structured coding system with categories (e.g., tweet study).

Nominal Level

Inequality between values (e.g., gender).

Ordinal Level

Rank order between values (e.g., education).

Interval Level

Distance between values (e.g., temperature/degrees).

Ratio Level

Proportion between values, with a meaningful or natural zero value (e.g., age).

Data Scraping

Using data programs to extract relevant info (web scraping, report mining, screens scraping). Data mining also identifies patterns in the extracted data.

Sample Studies

Part of the population is chosen to form a sample. Only part is studied, but findings are used to generalize.

Probability Sampling

All units have a known probability of being included in the sample (Confidence interval/statistical margin of error. Significance level => P< 0.05).

Strategic Sample

Theoretical understanding of the social conditions being studied. To develop theories (analytical induction) or to make a holistic generalization.

Simple Random Sampling

Random drawing from a list of all units in the study's universe.

Systematic Sampling

Sampling of every Nth unit on a list of all units in the universe (e.g., every 10th unit is used).

Stratified Sampling

Units are divided into categories according to their properties; then, random drawing of units from each category.

Quota Sampling

Units are divided into specific categories from which a specific number (quota) is selected.

Haphazard Sampling

Sampling of units that happen to be located in a particular place at a particular time.