A&P 2 Unit 4 Study Review

What is the relationship between a partial pressure gradient and respiratory gas exchange? (Ch.23)

without the difference(s) in pressure = no gas exchange (air won’t move)

Know these terms: (Ch.23)

• Inspiration

• Expiration

• Bronchoconstriction

• Pneumothorax

• Internal respiration

• External respiration

• Inspiration: Breathing in

• Expiration: Breathing out

• Bronchoconstriction: Tightening of the bronchi

• Pneumothorax: “Air in thorax (chest)” → Lung will collapse, vacuum in space is removed

• Internal respiration: Gas exchange between blood & cells

• External respiration: Gas exchange between blood & Lungs

Know the types of Alveolar cells and function (Ch.23)

• Type 1 Alveolar cells (95%) - Majority of alveolar cells

  • Allows gas exchange, diffusion of oxygen & CO2

• Type 2 Alveolar cells (5%)

  • Produces and secretes surfactants & actively pumps out solutes

Know the values for partial pressure of oxygen and carbon dioxide used in the notes when gas exchange is happening (Ch.23)

pO₂ = ↑ 100, 40 ↓ (Oxygen)

• “When it’s high, it’s 100; when it’s low, it’s 40.”

CO₂ = ↑ 46, 40 ↓ (Carbon dioxide)

• “When it’s high, it’s 46; when it’s low, it’s 40.”

What factors affect gas exchange? (In notes) (Ch.23)

1) Partial pressure

• W/out a difference, you won’t have gas exchange

2) Distance (ex: pulmonary edema)

• B/w Alveoli & Capillary

• More distance the gases have to diffuse across

3.) Solubility of a gas

• Co₂ is way more soluble in water (make things acidic)

4.) Surface Area of Alveoli

• Macrophage produce elastic, breaks down walls of alveoli (Less surface area)

What is a dissociation curve? (Ch.23)

• Shift to the right

• Shift to the left

• Shift to the right - Hemoglobin becomes less sticky for O₂

  • Hemoglobin is letting go of oxygen

  Like when:

  • Exercising = more O₂

  • ↑ Body temp.

  • ↓ pH (acidic)

  • ↑ CO₂

• Shift to the left - Hemoglobin becomes more sticky for O₂

  • Hemoglobin is not letting go of oxygen

• Like when:

  • Resting = less O₂

  • ↓ Body temp.

  • ↑ pH (acidic)

  • ↓ CO₂

What are the types of COPD? (Ch.23)

1) Chronic bronchitis

2) Emphysema

3) Asthma

Know the Gas laws and if they relate to partial pressure or pulmonary ventilation (Ch.23)

Dalton’s law: Gas exchange & partial pressure

• Partial pressure of all those parts of gas (sum of all the partial pressures)

• Ex: 100mmhg = 30 + 40 + 30 “Parts make the whole”

Boyle’s law: Pulmonary Ventilation; moving air from Atmosphere to lungs

• Volume & Pressure are inversely related

• Ex: ↑ Vol. = ↓ P. (or to) ↓ Vol = ↑ P.

What % of oxygen is transported in the blood? (Notes) (Ch.23)

• 98% of O₂ is transported in the RBC’s (Blood)

• 2% of O₂ is transported in the Plasma

How is CO2 transported? (Notes) Know percentages (Ch.23)

Internal Respiration: (↓) Know order & %!!

• Gas exchange b/w blood & body cells

1) 70%

2) 23%

3) 7%

External Respiration: (↑) Know order & %!!

• Gas exchange b/w blood & lungs

1) 7%

2) 23%

3) 70%

What is the respiratory equation? (Ch.23)

Co₂ + H₂O ⇄ H₂CO₃ ⇄ H⁺ + HCO₃

H₂CO3 = Carbonic Acid

H⁺ + HCO₃ = Bicarbonate

Why is the right kidney lower than the left? (Ch.24)

Liver

What are the functions of the urinary system? (Ch.24)

“Filtering of blood & excretes”

Functions:

1. Removes metabolic wastes

2. Regulates blood volume & Blood pressure

3. Regulates plasma concentrations of ions (Na+, K+, CL-, etc..)

4. Helps Stabilize Blood PH

5. Helps conserve valuable nutrients

What are the functions of the kidneys? (Ch.24)

Urine production

• Cleaning of blood

Homeostasis

• Blood pressure, pH, [Ion]

Trace of the parts of the nephron (Ch.24)

Trace:

1. Glomerulus (Filters)

2. Bowman’s capsule

3. Proximal convoluted tubule (70% reabsorbed)

4. Descending loop of Henle (H₂O leaves)

5. Ascending loop of Henle (Solutes leave)

6. Distal convoluted tubule (Hormones fine-tune

7. Collecting duct (Hormones fine-tune)

How many nephrons are found per kidney? (Ch.24)

1 million in 1 kidney

What type of capillaries make up the glomerulus? (Ch.24)

Fenestrated capillaries (Leaky)

What role do proteins in the plasma play? (Ch.24)

- Plasma Proteins creates Osmotic pressure

What are the main parts of the juxtaglomerular apparatus? (Ch.24)

JG apparatus monitors the filtrate that runs through for signs of low blood pressure (Ex. ↓ Na²⁺ ↓ Fluid = ↓ BP) that signal JG cells to release renin to start of the RAAS process to ↑ BP

2 main parts:

1. JG/Granular Cells - Glomerulus (Release renin to start RAAS)

2. Macula Densa - Distal convoluted tubule (Communicates w/ JG cells)

Know these terms: (Ch.24)

• Reabsorption

• Secretion

• Electrolyte

Reabsorption: Its direction is reabsorbing back into the blood

Secretion: Specific, Filter out of the blood

Electrolyte: Charged atom or charged substance that will disassociate (break apart) in water

Know the steps of Tubuloglomerular control (e.g. why is renin released and from where?) (Ch.24)

Tubuloglomerular control is RAAS

Renin ultimately activates angiotensin II, but is initially (primarily) released because it senses low sodium in the filtrate in the macula densa, causing JG cells to release renin

Simplified:

Macula Densa senses ↓ Na⁺ in Filtate, JG cells release renin (RAAS)

Steps:

1. Stimulus: ↓ BP

2. Sends message to: JG cells

3. They produce enzyme Renin, that’s dumped in blood

4. Comes in contact w/ protein Angiotensinogen

5. Renin turns Angiotensinogen into Angiotensin I

6. Comes in contact w/ ACE

7. ACE turns Angiotensin I into Angiotensin II*

8. Causes: vasoconstricion, ↑ Thrist, ↑ CO

What is a transport maximum? (Ch.24)

Simplified:

# of transporters determines how much you can reabsorb

Defined:

The amount of particles/solutes that can be reabsorbed by the blood is affected by the # of transporters

In filtration, how many liters of blood are in total in the body? (Ch.24)

3L blood total in body

In the Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR), how many liters/day are produced b/w the Glomerulus & Bowman’s capsule? (Ch.24)

180L / Day

What does an ACE inhibitor do? (Ch.24)

ACE turns Angiotensin I into Angiotensin II

High levels of PCO2 indicate what acid-base disorder? (Ch.25)

Respiratory acidosis

What two components form Carbonic acid? (Ch.25)

Carbon dioxide (CO₂) + Water (H₂O) → Carbonic acid (H₂CO₃)

Know the most abundant anion and cation found in extracellular fluid (Ch.25)

Cation: Positive (+) Anion : Negative (-)

Extracellular fluid: - Blood plasma, - Interstial fluid

Na⁺ - Sodium; Cation

Cl ^- - Chlorine; Anion

Intracellular fluid: - Fluid w/in cells, - Cytoplasm, Inside cell

K⁺ - Potassium; Cation

PO₄^3- - Phosphate; Anion

What is fluid sequestration? (Ch.25)

Fluid distributed abnormally; fluid collects in excess in an area of the body where it is not normally found. The distribution of the body fluids is abnormal. “When fluid is in a place(s) it should not be”

Examples:

• Edema

• Ascites

• Pericardial effusion (Heart)

• Pleural effusion (Lungs)

Know potential causes that can lead to the acid-base disorders (Ch.25)

Causes/Acid-base disorders:

Respiratory Alkalosis: Anxiety, Hyperventilation

Respiratory Acidosis: Hypoventilation, airway obstruction

Metabolic Alkalosis: Vomiting

Metabolic Acidosis: Diarrhea & Ketoacidosis w/ Type 1 DM (Diabetes)

What role does Angiotensin II play in fluid balance? What are its main effects? (Ch.25)

(RAAS)

Angiotensin II increases in fluid balance; it makes you thirsty, holds onto fluid, and without increasing blood volume

Main effects:

• ↑ Blood Volume (BL Vol)

• ↑ ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone)

  • Antidiuretic - Keep fluid (Holding pee)

  • Diuretic - Get rid of fluid (Peeing)

• ↑ Aldosterone (makes you thirsty)

• Powerful Vasoconstrictor

• ↑ Blood pressure (BP)

  • The more fluid in your blood, the higher the pressure

  • The less fluid in your blood, the lower the pressure

What is the difference between Diabetes Type 1 and Type II? (Ch.25)

Type I:

• Autoimmune disorder

• Insulin DEFICIENCY

• beta b cells secretes “beta-b-insulin”

• making antibodies that attack the pancreas

Type II:

• Insulin RESISTANCE

What does fluid intake do to blood volume? (Ch.25)

increases blood volume

What does Aldosterone do for Fluid balance? (Ch.25)

Aldosterone will increase fluid balance (makes you thirsty); it moves salt (NaCl)

How is pH controlled in the PCT? What ions move where? (Ch.25)

Reabsorbed a pound of baking Soda (HCO₃); In exchange for hydrogen Ions

How is pH controlled in the DCT and Collecting Duct with both types of intercalated cells? (Ch.25)

Type A: Acidosis

• Secretes H+, Reabsorbs K+

• Reabsorbed HCO₃, Secretes CL^-

Type B: Alkalosis

• Reabsorbs. H⁺, Secretes K⁺

• Secretes HCO₃, Reabsorbed CL^-

What are the 3 tools used to manage pH, which is the fastest and which does the best job? (Ch.25)

1. Buffer system: (HCO₃)

• Co₂ + H₂O ⇄ H₂CO₃ ⇄ H⁺ + HCO₃

• Fastest, but easily overwhelmed

• Deal with short-term changes in pH

2. Respiratory system:

• 75% of pH problems are dealt with the respiratory system

• Changes occur within a few breaths

3. Kidneys:

• Best job, but takes the most time

What are fixed acids? Types? (Ch.25)

• Lactic acids

  • From Glycolysis

• Phosphoric acid

  • From Nucleic acid metabolism

• Ketoacids

  • From metabolism of fat

Be able to determine an acid base problem (Ch.25)

Use the “normal values” chart as a reference to answer acid/base problems

*Memorize chart*

↓ Normal values ↑

(A) Blood pH: 7.35 - 7.45 mmHg (B)

(B) PCO₂: 35 - 45 mmHg (A)

(A) HCO₃^- : 22 - 26 mEq/L (B)

Know these terms (Ch.25)

• Hypo/hypernatremia

Hyponatremia “Hypo" = low

• Low sodium (Na+) concentration in the blood

Hypernatremia "Hyper" = high

• High sodium (Na+) concentration in the blood