Lang. Disorders II Exam 2

discrimination

ability to differentiate between similar letters

identification

recognizing letters as the same or different

discrimination vs. identification

• discrimination comes before identification

• identification is a higher level skill

differences in spoken and written languages

• physical → spoken language is more transient

• situational → spoken language has more contextual supports and is more individualized

• functional → written language is more limited in functionality and is mainly used to convey information

• linguistic → written language is more lexically dense whereas spoken language contains more redundant information and has more prosodic features

oral language

• function → regulate social interaction, request objects/actions, face to face

• topic → everydayness, here and now, individualized topics, contextualized

• structure → high-frequency words, repetitive, predictable, redundant content and linguistic structure, pronouns/slang, prosodic features for cohesion

written language

• function → regulate thinking, reflection, communication over time and distance, large group of audience

• topic → abstract or unfamiliar objects, there and then, preselected topics, decontextualized

• structure → low frequency words, lexically dense, specific abstract vocab, concise syntax and content, linguistic processing

what dimensions make reading a challenging skill to master

• lexically dense

• not individualized

• comprehension

• word recognition

“simple” view of reading

reading is a combination of decoding and comprehension skills

dyslexia

• a specific deficit in single word decoding based in weakness in the phonological domain of language

• has a secondary impact on reading comprehension

specific comprehension deficit

• delays in oral language acquisition that affect the ability to comprehend language in any form whether oral or written

• many learn decoding in primary grades but struggle with complex content of middle grade to secondary reading

subskills needed for word recognition

• decoding, letter to sound correspondence, and alphabetic principles

• considerations in teaching alphabetic principles

• word recognition processes in reading

letter to sound correspondence and alphabetic principle

• knowing that letters and letter patterns represent the sounds of spoken language

• knowing that letters and sounds have a systematic and predictable relationship

• knowing that these predictable relationships can be applied to both familiar and unfamiliar words

alphabetic principles

• words are formed by letters that represent sounds

• knowledge of letter sound correspondence rules

phonics

• helps kids learn and use the alphabetic principle

• very restrictive meaning

• doesn’t teach phonological awareness

functionality considerations in teaching alphabetic principles

• prioritize letters that occur frequently in simple words

• examples of low utility letter sound relationships: “x” in “box” and “ey” in “they”

• prioritize lower case letters over upper case letters

• pronounceability (ex: /k/ in “cent” vs. “can”)

avoid confusions when teaching alphabetic principles

• separate the introduction of

  • visually similar letters (ex: b/d, p/q)

  • auditory similar sounds (ex: b/v, i/e)

pacing and sequencing in teaching alphabetic principles

• one letter sound correspondence at a time

• introduce consonants and vowels in a sequence so kids can work with words ASAP

• utilize prior knowledge (ex: zone of proximal development) - practice blending with words that contain the letter sound relationships kids have learned

word recognition processes in reading

sounding out (saying each individual sound) → sounding out + blending (say each individual sound out loud and pronounce the word) → sight word reading (saying the whole word) → automaticity (word recognition by sight without access to the meaning)

sight words/mental grapheme representations

• sight word = mental grapheme representation

• they refer to a clear and complete image of the written word that is word-specific

• contains all of its graphemes or letters in the appropriate order

• some words are more challenging

• ex: say “cup” → do you see a cup if you close your eyes

• in first grade = about 100 sight words

Chall’s Stages of Reading Development

• Stage 0: pre-reading

• Stage 1: decoding

• Stage 2: automaticity

• Stage 3: reading to learn

• Stage 4: reading for ideas

• Stage 5: critical reading

Stage 0: pre-reading

• pre k (2-6)

• literacy socialization

Stage 1: decoding

• grades 1-2

• ages: 6-8

• phonological analysis

• segmentation/synthesis in single words

• kid’s focus on letter sound correspondence rules

• limited comprehension

Stage 2: automaticity

• grades: 2-4

• ages 7-10

• fluent reading

• decoding is increasingly automatic

• comprehension process more similar to spoken language

• reading one word at a time

Stage 3: reading to learn

• grade: 4-8

• ages: 9-14

• able to perform more complex comprehension with increased speech

• decoding is below consciousness

Stage 4: reading for ideas

• grade: 8-12

• ages: 13-18

• recognition of various points of view

• use of inferencing

Stage 5: critical reading

• college

• synthesis of new knowledge, critical thinking

learning to read

stages 0,1, 2

phonological skills mastered at preschool age

• concept of spoken word

• rhyme recognition

• rhyme completion

• syllable blending

phonological skills mastered at kindergarten age

• rhyme completion

• rhyme production

• syllable blending

• syllable segmentation

• syllable deletion

• phoneme isolation of initial/final sound

phonological skills mastered at first grade age

• phoneme isolation of final sound

• phoneme blending (onset and rime)

• phoneme blending (all phonemes)

• phoneme segmentation

• phoneme deletion (initial sound)

phonological skills mastered at second grade age

• phoneme deletion (consonant blends)

• phoneme substitution

kindergarten developmental expectations of word recognition

• familiar with how books work (front to back; top to bottom; left to right)

• distinguish between upper case letters (BAD) vs. lower case letters (bad)

• know some sight words (ex: cat)

• find words that rhyme (bat and mat)

• some may be able to make up rhyming words

• know that some words contain similar sounds (ex: fun, fan, front)

first grade developmental expectations of word recognition

• can find all sounds in short words

• can blend separate sounds to form words

• can match simple spoken words to written words

• have ~100 sight words (ex: have, said, where, two)

age 4-5 developmental expectations of word recognition

• kids may pretend to write or spell and can write some letters

• kids may recognize and name 10 or more letters and can usually write their own name

• kids may recognize where words start and stop by pointing to spaces between words

how is phonological awareness tested

screeners that are strongly predictive of future reading ability

when is phonological awareness mastered

• starts to be worked on in kinder

• mastered by the end of second grade

cross linguistic differences

• logographic/pictographic (ex: Chinese)

  • one symbol stands for a word

  • rely more on memory than the ability to break down the word into smaller units

• syllabary (ex: Japanese)

  • one symbol = one syllable, then syllables are combined into words

  • require less memory than logographic but more awareness of the sound structure of words

• alphabetic cipher (ex: English)

  • one symbol = one phoneme

  • economic in terms of load on memory but great deal of phonological awareness

  • efficient but unnatural (correspondence between the symbols and concepts they represent)

what subskills are needed for comprehension

syntax, vocabulary, narrative skills, background knowledge, and verbal reasoning

syntactic knowledge

the implicit knowledge that one would draw on, unconsciously when processing sentences

syntactic awareness

• meta

• explicit level of knowledge necessary to detect/correct syntactic errors

LLD and syntactic deficits

• ~50% of LLD exhibit syntactic deficits

• syntactic errors may be infrequent in spontaneous language sample (11% drops to 3% between 8-11 y/o)

• difficulties using noun phrases with adjectives, prepositional phrases or relative clauses

• difficulties using passive voice and negation

dimensions of vocabulary skills

• breadth

• depth

• word retrieval

breadth

• how many words a child knows

• receptive vocabulary breadth predicts decoding

• expressive vocabulary breadth predicts visual word recognition

depth

• how much a child knows about a word

• depth of vocab knowledge predicts comprehension

retrieval

how fast, accurate, and complete a word is retrieved

LLD and semantic deficits

• breadth

  • smaller vocab size

  • over reliance on short, high frequency words

  • LLD know fewer complex, low frequency words

• depth

  • limited knowledge about word meaning and definitions

  • weakened word associations among words

  • ineffective semantic categorization

• issues with word retrieval

  • difficulties retrieving phonological forms from long term memory

  • slower and less accurate in confrontation naming

  • more substitution and circumlocution in spontaneous speech

why are narrative skills important to reading

• bridge oral language and literate language

• early language predicts reading comprehension

• narrative focused intervention in the spoken language enhances reading comprehension and writing skills

macrostructures

• structural proficiency

• story grammar proficiency

• story grammar elements

microstructures

• linguistic proficiency

• cohesion

• sentence complexity

• lexical diversity

story grammar elements

• setting

• initiating event

• internal response

• plan

• attempt

• consequence

• reaction/resolution

setting

• who, when, and where

• introduces the context in which the story takes place

• introduces the main characters

initiating event

• events that set off the story’s events

• events that cause the main character to respond in some way

• events that triggers an immediate response

internal response

• internal reaction of protagonists to the initiating event

• thoughts and feelings of the main character

plan

• intended action of the main character

• characters plan to achieve a goal

• intended action should relate to the initiating event in some ways

attempt

• actions of the main character in pursuit of the goal

• observable actions that represent efforts to solve the problem in the story

consequence

• outcomes of the attempt

• achievements of failures of the main characters’ goal

reaction/resolution

• how the main characters feel or think about the consequence

• can be emotional evaluative responses or physical responses

• lesson learned from the story, a resolution to the problem the characters need to solve

applebee’s stage of narrative development

• heaps (2 y/o)

• sequences (2-3 y/o)

• primitive narratives (3-4 y/o)

• unfocused chains (4-6 y/o)

• focused chains (5 y/o)

• true narratives (6-7 y/o)

Heaps stage of narrative development

• age: 2

• earliest pre-narrative structure

• collection of unrelated ideas, labels, and descriptions of events or actions

• no central them or organization

• simple declarative sentences

sequences stage of narrative development

• age: 2-3

• pre-narrative structure

• unlike heaps, events are labelled around a central them, character, or setting

• the events or ideas don’t necessarily follow temporally/casually

• no story plot

primitive narrative stage of narrative development

• age: 3-4

• there is a central theme, character, or setting

• unlike sequences, events are directed from the central core

• contain 3 story grammar elements, typically initiating event, actions, and consequences

• kids may recognize and label emotions - sometimes they make references to the feelings of characters

• no resolution or ending

unfocused chains stage of narrative development

• age: 4-6

• rare type of narrative

• events are linked in cause-effect or logical relationships

• better abilities in using conjunctions (ex: and, but, because)

• narrative doesn’t contain a central character or topic

• age of producing this narrative type is relatively short-lived

focused chains stage of narrative development

• age: 5

• unlike unfocused chains, there are logical sequence of events + central them, character, or setting; at least 4 story grammar elements

• kids may produce plans and motivations; but the plot remains weak

• ending may be abrupt or completely absent; audience needs to infer the ending

• kid may not see there is a need to end the story because the characters’ actions often don’t lead to an attainment of the goal

true narratives stage of narrative development

• age: 6-7

• clear, central them, character, and plot

• clear motivations behind characters’ actions

• logical sequence of events presented in a temporal order

• ending indicates a resolution to the problem

• contains at least 5 story grammar elements

background knowledge

• also called schema

• refers to what the associations and knowledge a reader has about reading (or other cognitive abilities)

• making “educated” guesses during reading

• to choose between alternate meanings of words

matthew’s effect

• “the rich get richer”

• augment knowledge about topics of curricular reading material via oral language activities with multiple modalities

• someone who is behind in the beginning skills of reading will only fall more behind

inferencing

• verbal reasoning

• finding clues for unstated information that may not be present in the text but implied

• “reading between the lines”

• major development in inferencing skills occur between 6-10 years old

• clients with LLD commonly have issued with pronoun referencing

local inference

• coherence established within and among sentences that often requires mapping/drawing connections between related words

• vocabulary is a critical component

global inferencing

• establish a coherent, big picture that covers the whole text

• goal that motivates particular action

• working memory is a key component

metalinguistic skills

ability to use language to talk about language

metacognitive skills

ability to use language to reflect on, talk about, and manage one’s thinking process