ap psych

Biological perspective

Behavior is the result of the physical brain, neurotransmitters, hormones, and individual differences in genes.

Behavioral perspective

Individuals learn behaviors through punishment, reinforcement, and observation.

Cognitive perspective

Behaviors stem from thoughts and memories (prior experiences).

Evolutionary perspective

Behaviors and mental processes exist in humans today because they were naturally selected for providing reproductive or survival advantage.

Humanistic perspective

In order to reach the full potential of your behavior, individuals need the support and acceptance of others (unconditional positive regard).

Psychodynamic perspective

Behaviors are linked to unresolved, unconscious childhood conflicts buried deep in the unconscious.

Socio-cultural perspective

Behaviors and mental processes are influenced by one’s culture, society, nationality, gender, religion, etc.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information that confirms one's beliefs, ignoring contradictory information.

Hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen or predicted it all along.

Overconfidence

A bias where individuals are more confident than they are accurate.

Experiment

A research method used to determine cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating one or more variables to measure their effect on dependent variables.

Independent variable

The factor in an experiment that is manipulated (the cause).

Dependent variable

The factor being measured and observed (the effect).

Random assignment

Participants have an equal chance of being placed in the experimental or control group in an experiment.

Case study

A descriptive study; detailed investigation of a single individual, small group, or rare phenomenon without manipulation.

Correlation

A measure that helps predict how two variables relate to each other.

Meta-analysis

Combines and analyzes data from multiple independent studies on a specific topic to calculate an overall effect size and identify trends.

Naturalistic observation

Descriptive study where behavior is observed in its natural setting without manipulation or intervention.

Hypothesis

An educated guess serving as a basis for research.

Falsifiability

The principle that a hypothesis must be able to be proven false in order to be scientifically valid.

Operational definition

How to measure a variable or define a term in a study.

Replication

The process of repeating a study to determine if findings are consistent.

Confounding variable

An outside factor that influences the relationship between the independent and dependent variable.

Mean

The average of a dataset.

Median

The middle number in a dataset.

Mode

The most frequently occurring number in a dataset.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a dataset.

Normal curve

A symmetrical bell-shaped curve representing the distribution of data where mean, median, and mode are the same.

Positive skew

A distribution where mode < median < mean, indicating a tail on the right.

Negative skew

A distribution where mean < median < mode, indicating a tail on the left.

Bimodal distribution

A dataset with two different values that appear most frequently.

Standard deviation

A measure of how much individual scores vary around the mean.

Percentile rank

Indicates the percentage of scores in a distribution that fall at or below a particular score.

Regression toward the mean

The statistical tendency for extreme initial scores to move closer to the average upon subsequent measurements.

Population

The entire group that researchers are studying.

Sample

A smaller group of individuals selected from a larger population.

Random sampling

Every member of a population has an equal chance of being selected in a study.

Convenience sampling

A non-random sampling technique where researchers select participants based on their availability and willingness to participate.

Experimental group

The group that receives the experimental treatment or independent variable.

Control group

The group that does not receive the experimental treatment or independent variable.

Placebo

An inactive substance that has no therapeutic effect.

Placebo effect

When a person experiences an improvement in their condition after receiving a treatment that is inert.

Single-blind procedure

Participants are unaware of whether they are in the experimental or control groups.

Double-blind procedure

Neither the participants nor the researchers are aware of who is in the experimental or control groups.

Experimenter bias

The unconscious tendency of researchers to influence the outcome of a study.

Social desirability bias

The tendency for respondents to answer questions in a way that portrays them favorably.

Qualitative measures

Non-numerical data.

Quantitative measures

Numerical data.

Likert scale

A scale measuring the level of agreement or disagreement.

Scatterplot

A graph showing the strength, direction, and relationship of two variables.

Correlation coefficient (r-value)

Determines the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables.

Effect size

Magnitude or strength of a relationship.

Statistical significance (p-value)

Indicates whether observed differences between groups are real or just due to chance.

Directionality problem

A limitation of correlational research where it is unclear which variable causes the other.

Informed consent

Participants are informed about a study's purpose, procedures, risks, benefits, and their right to withdraw.

Confidentiality

Keeping participants’ identities anonymous.

Deception

Withholding information from participants regarding the true purpose, nature, or procedures of a study.

Debriefing

Informing participants about the study’s true purpose and any deception used.

Nature vs. nurture

The debate over the impact of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) on behavior and traits.

Central nervous system

The brain and the spinal cord.

Peripheral nervous system

Part of the nervous system that consists of nerves outside of the brain and spinal cord.

Autonomic nervous system

Regulates involuntary bodily functions.

Parasympathetic nervous system

Calms the body, promoting relaxation.

Sympathetic nervous system

Arouses the body, preparing for fight or flight.

Neurons

The basic building blocks of the brain.

Glial cells

Support, protect, and nourish neurons.

Reflex arc

An automatic, involuntary, and rapid response through the spinal cord.

Sensory neurons

Carry messages from the body to the brain (afferent).

Motor neurons

Carry messages from the brain to the body (efferent).

Interneurons

Carry messages between sensory and motor neurons in the brain.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers released in the synapse to transmit a message.

Dopamine

Involved in motor movement and alertness.

Serotonin

Regulates mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal.

Norepinephrine

Helps control alertness and arousal.

Glutamate

An excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory.

GABA

An inhibitory neurotransmitter that calms neural activity.

Endorphins

Released in response to pain or stress, reducing discomfort.

Acetylcholine

Involved in motor movement, memory, and learning.

Hormones

Chemical messengers released by glands in the endocrine system.

Adrenaline

Activates the fight or flight response.

Leptin

Hormone that signals fullness after eating.

Ghrelin

Hormone that stimulates hunger.

Melatonin

Hormone that regulates sleep cycles.

Oxytocin

The 'love hormone' associated with bonding and trust.

Psychoactive drugs

Chemical substances that temporarily alter brain function and perception.

Stimulants

Drugs that speed up neural activity (e.g., caffeine, cocaine).

Depressants

Drugs that slow down neural activity (e.g., alcohol).

Hallucinogens

Substances that distort perceptions (e.g., marijuana).

Opioids

Drugs that reduce pain (e.g., heroin).

Neural firing

The process by which neurons transmit electrical signals.

Antagonist

Blocks a neurotransmitter from performing its function.

Agonist

Mimics a neurotransmitter to enhance its effects.

Reuptake inhibitors

Block reabsorption of neurotransmitters, increasing their levels.

Tolerance

Diminished effect with regular use of the same drug dosage.

Addiction

Compulsive craving for a drug or behavior.

Withdrawal

Discomfort following discontinuation of an addictive substance.

Brainstem

Responsible for basic survival functions.

Medulla

Controls heartbeat, breathing, swallowing.

Reticular activating system

Controls arousal and alertness.

Pons

Coordinates movement and regulates sleeping patterns.