ap psych

Biological perspective: behavior is the result of the physical brain, neurotransmitters, hormones, and individual differences in genes Behavioral perspective: Individuals learn behaviors through punishment, reinforcement, and observation Cognitive perspective: behaviors stem from thoughts and memories (prior experiences) Evolutionary perspective: behaviors and mental processes exist in humans today because they were naturally selected because they provided early humans with a reproductive or survival advantage Humanistic perspective: in order to reach the full potential of your behavior, individuals need the support and acceptance of others (unconditional positive regard) Psychodynamic perspective: behaviors are linked to unresolved, unconscious childhood conflicts from the past buried deep in the unconscious Socio-cultural perspective: behaviors and mental processes are the result of the influence of one’s culture, society, nationality, gender, religion, etc. Behavior is often influenced by the norms of the various groups that an individual is a part of within society. Confirmation bias: the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms one’s beliefs and ignores contradictory information Hindsight bias: “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon; the tendency for people to believe, after learning the outcome, that they would have foreseen or predicted it all along Overconfidence: a bias where individuals are more confident than they are correct Experiment: a research method used to determine cause-and-effect relationship by manipulating one or more variables to measure their effect on dependent variables Independent variable: the factor in an experiment that is manipulated (cause) dependent variable: the factor being measured and observed (effect) Random assignment: participants have an equal chance of being placed in the experimental or control group in an experiment Case study: a descriptive study; in-depth, detailed investigation of a single individual, 4 small group, or rare phenomenon - no manipulation Correlation: helps us predict how two variables relate to each other meta-analysis: combines and analyzes data from multiple independent studies on a specific topic to calculate an overall effect size and identify trends Naturalistic observation: descriptive study; behavior is observed in its natural setting without any manipulation or intervention by the researcher hypothesis: an educated guess as a basis for research Falsifiability: the principle that a hypothesis must be able to be proven false in order to be considered scientifically valid. Operational definition: how to measure a variable or define a term in a study Replication: the process of repeating a study to determine if findings are consistent Confounding variable: an outside factor that influences the relationship between the independent and dependent variable Measures of central tendency Mean: average Median: the middle number Mode: most frequently occurring number Range: the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a dataset Normal curve: the mean, median, and mode are the same number Positive skew: mode < median < mean, higher data values pull the tail to the right Negative skew: mean < median < mode, lower data values pulls the tail to the left Bimodal distribution: two different values appear most frequently (modes) in the data set Standard deviation: measures how much individual scores vary around the mean Percentile rank: indicates the percentage of scores in a distribution that fall at or below a particular score Regression toward the mean: the statistical tendency for extreme initial scores (very high or low) to move closer to the average (mean) upon subsequent measurements Sample: a smaller group of individuals selected from a larger population Population: the entire group that the researchers are studying Random sampling: every member of a population has an equal chance of being selected in a study Convenience sampling: non-random sampling technique where researchers select participants based on their immediate availability, accessibility, and willingness to participate, such as friends or classmates. 5 Sampling procedure: techniques used to select a sample from a population Sampling bias: occurs when certain members of a population have a higher or lower likelihood of being selected than others Generalizability: the extent to which research findings from a specific, often limited sample can be applied to the broader population Experimental group: receive the experimental treatment or independent variable Control group: do not receive the experimental treatment or independent variable Placebo: an inactive substance that has no therapeutic effect Placebo effect: where a person experiences an improvement in their condition after receiving a treatment that is inert Single-blind procedure: participants are unaware of whether they are in the experimental or control groups Double-blind procedure: neither the participants nor the researchers are aware who is in the experimental or control groups Experimenter bias: unconscious or unintentional tendency of researchers to influence the outcome of a study Social desirability bias: tendency for respondents to answer questions in a way that portrays them in a favorable light, aligning with social norms rather than true feelings Qualitative measures: non-numerical data Quantitative measures: numerical data Likert scale: scales of “agree” or “strongly disagree” Scatterplot: graph showing the strength, direction and relationship of two variables Correlation coefficient (r-value): determines the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables Effect size: magnitude/strength of a relationship Small: 0.2 and below Medium: 0.3 - 0.7 Large: 0.8 or higher Statistical significance (p-value): whether any differences observed between groups between studies are “real” or if they’re due to just chance Directionality problem: a limitation of correlational research where it is unclear which variable causes the other Institutional Review Board (IRB): established to protect the rights and welfare of human and animal research subjects Informed consent/assent: letting participants know about a study’s purpose, 6 procedures, risks, benefits, and right to withdraw; voluntary inclusion Confidentiality: keeping participant’s identity anonymous Confederate: an actor working with the researcher who poses as a participant Deception: where they intentionally mislead or withhold information from participants regarding the true purpose, nature, or procedures of a study Debriefing: inform participants about the study’s true purpose, methods and any deception used nature vs. nurture: the debate between the impact of environment and genetics Twin studies/adoption studies/family studies: research designs used to determine the influence of genetics vs. environment on traits and behaviors Central nervous system: the brain and the spinal cord Peripheral nervous system: part of the nervous system that consists of nerves outside of the brain and spinal cord Autonomic nervous system: regulates involuntary bodily functions Parasympathetic nervous system: relaxes the body Sympathetic nervous system: arouses the body Somatic nervous system: enables voluntary control over muscles Neural cells Neurons: basic building blocks of the brain Glial cells: provide support, protection, and nourishment to neurons Reflex arc: an automatic, involuntary, and rapid responses through the spinal cord Sensory neurons: (afferent) carry messages from the body to the brain Motor neurons: (efferent) carry messages from the brain to the body Interneurons: carry messages between the sensory and motor neurons (in the brain) Neurotransmitters: chemical messengers released in the synapse to keep a message/impulse going Dopamine: motor movement and alertness Serotonin: mood, hunger, sleep and arousal control Norepinephrine: helps control alertness and arousal Glutamate: excitatory, involved in memory GABA: inhibitory, calms you down Endorphins: released when your body feels pain or stress Substance P: tells you when there is pain Acetylcholine: motor movement, memory and learning Hormones: chemical messengers released by glands in the endocrine system Adrenaline: activates fight or flight response in sympathetic NS Leptin: makes you feel full after eating 7 Ghrelin: makes you feel hungry Melatonin: makes you feel sleepy Oxytocin: “love” hormone; associated with bonding, empathy, and trust Psychoactive drugs: chemical substance that temporarily alters brain function and perception Stimulants (caffeine, cocaine): speeds up neural activity Depressants (alcohol): slows down neural activity Hallucinogens (marijuana): distorts perceptions Opioids (heroin): reduce pain Neural firing: the process by which neurons transmit electrical signals throughout the nervous system antagonist: blocks a neurotransmitter from doing its job agonist: mimics a neurotransmitter and heightens its effects Reuptake inhibitors: increase the concentration of neurotransmitters by blocking their reabsorption into the axon terminal tolerance: diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug addiction: compulsive craving for a drug/behavior Withdrawal: discomfort/distress that follows discontinuing an addictive drug/behavior Brainstem: responsible for basic survival functions medulla: controls heartbeat, breathing, swallowing, etc. Reticular activating system: controls arousal and alertness Pons: coordinates movement, relax, control sleep cycle Reward center: general dopamine-related reward system and specific centers associated with the pleasures of eating, drinking, and sex. Cerebellum: “little brain”; coordination, movement, and muscle memory Cerebral cortex: outermost layer covering the hemispheres, responsible for executive higher-order thinking Frontal lobes: focusing, checking, problem-solving, planning, making decisions, movement and personality Occipital lobes: processes visual info Temporal lobes: processes auditory info Parietal lobes: receives sensory input for touch and body position Limbic system: a group of interconnected brain structures that regulate emotions and behavior Thalamus: the brain’s sensory switchboard; receives all information from the senses except for smell Hypothalamus: maintains homeostasis and controls the pituitary gland Pituitary gland: “master gland,” secretes hormones 8 Hippocampus: processes explicit memories Amygdala: responsible for emotions - aggression and fear Corpus callosum: connects the right and left hemispheres of the brain for communication Motor cortex: controls voluntary movements Pre-frontal cortex: decision-making, planning, impulsivity, personality Somatosensory cortex: registers and processes body touch Association areas: not involved in motor and sensory functions; higher-order mental functions: learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking Split-brain: a condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are severed by cutting the corpus callosum Right vs. left hemispheres: left hemisphere is primarily responsible for language and right is responsible for spatial ability Broca’s Area: produces speech Wernicke’s Area: comprehends speech aphasia: a language disorder Brain plasticity: the brain’s capacity to change and adapt EEG: an amplified recording of the electrical brain wave activity CT: a series of x-ray photographs that form one composite image MRI: uses magnetic fields to see soft-brain tissue and detailed brain anatomy PET: injects patient with radioactive tracers that attach themselves to a specific glucose in the body MEG: Using magnets, maps brain activity in real time and creates a map of where and when activity happens fMRI: reveals structure and brain activity by following metabolic activity and oxygen in the brain consciousness: awareness of ourselves and our environment Circadian rhythm: our internal, biological 24-hour clock NREM: non-rapid eye movement Stage 1: falling asleep; alpha waves shown; heartbeat and breathing slow down Stage 2: light sleep; theta waves shown; brain produces sleep spindles Stage 3: deepest sleep; delta waves shown; tissue repair growth and cell regeneration, immune system strengthens Hypnagogic sensations: the few minutes when you are not quite awake, but not totally asleep yet ex. “falling” 9 REM sleep: dream state/“paradoxical sleep”; internally your body is aroused and externally your body is paralyzed Dreams: a sequence of images, emotions and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind that are notable for hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, delusional acceptance of the content, and difficulties later remembering it Activation-synthesis theory: dreams stem from random neural activation spreading upward from the brainstem Memory consolidation theory: sleep is useful for organizing and consolidating memories or restoring depleted resources used throughout a given day Restoration theory: sleep is essential for the body and mind to recover, repair, and replenish energy levels, resources and brain tissue Sleep disorders: maladaptive, distressing and deviant from cultural norms Insomnia: difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or both Narcolepsy: uncontrollable sleep attacks REM sleep behavior disorder: when muscle paralysis associated with REM sleep does not occur Sleep apnea: when breathing repeatedly stops and starts, causing you to wake up multiple times in the night and feel tired during the day Somnambulism: sleepwalking sensation: the process by which we perception: the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information transduction: the process of converting a message into another form ex. seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling Absolute threshold: the minimum stimulation necessary to detect a sensation 50% time Just-noticeable difference/difference threshold: the minimum difference a person can detect between any two stimuli 50% of the time Sensory adaptation: unconscious, diminished sensitivity to constant stimulation Weber’s Law: the just-noticeable difference between 2 stimuli is proportional to the magnitude of the original stimuli. (ex. the larger the initial stimuli, the larger the change needs to be in order for it to be perceived as different) Sensory interaction: one sense influences another Synesthesia: stimulation of one sensory pathway triggers an automatic, consistent experience in a second (ex. seeing sounds) Retina: light-sensitive, multilayered tissue at the back of the eye that converts light waves into neural impulses (transduction!) using photoreceptors Blind spot: where the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a “gap” in your vision - our brain fills that space Optic nerve: transmits visual information from to the thalamus and occipital lobe 10 Accommodation: the process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus on objects at different distances Nearsightedness: can see near, not far Farsightedness: can see far, not near Photoreceptors: specialized light sensitive neurons located in the retina Rods: detect black, white, and gray; located in the corners of eyes; 120 million cones: detect color; located in the center of eyes; 6 million light adaptation: the process that allows cones in our eyes to adjust to brightness dark adaptation: the process that allows rods in our eyes to adjust to darkness Trichromatic theory: the retina contains three different color receptors (red, green, blue) which can produce the perception of any color Opponent-process theory: explains why we see afterimages red → green, green → red white → black, black → white blue → yellow, yellow → blue Ganglion cells: neurons in the retina that receive information from the bipolar cells Color vision deficiency Dichromatism: an individual only has 2 rather than 3 types of functioning cones Monochromatism: individual can only perceive shades of a single color or gray Prosopagnosia: “face blindness,” unable to recognize familiar faces Blindsight: ability of people with damage to the visual cortex to respond to visual stimuli without conscious awareness or experience of seeing Wavelengths: determine hue in sight and pitch in hearing Amplitudes: determine brightness in sight and loudness in hearing Pitch: the highness or lowness of a tone (based on frequency) loudness: determined by amplitude Place theory: different areas along the cochlea respond to different frequencies - all based on location Frequency theory: pitch is determined by how fast or slow the neurons in our auditory system fire in response to sound waves Volley theory: Frequency Theory + groups of neurons can work together to perceive sounds at frequencies beyond their individual firing rates Sound localization: ability to identify the origin and direction of a sound source Conductive deafness: when there are problems with the outer or middle ear that obstruct sound waves from reaching the inner ear Sensorineural deafness: damage to the inner ear or auditory nerve that affects the 11 transmission of sound signals Olfactory sense: smell pheromones: chemical substances secreted by animals that have an effect on behavior Gustation: taste Sweet Salty Sour Bitter Umami: savory or meaty Oleogustus: fat Supertasters: individuals with increased density of taste buds making them highly sensitive to tastes Gate control theory: suggests a neurological “gate” in the spinal cord that determines which pain signals reach the brain Phantom limb sensation: perception of sensations in a limb that has been amputated or is missing Vestibular sense: balance and coordination Semicircular canals: fluid-filled loops in the inner ear that detect balance and coordination for the vestibular system Kinesthesis: senses body position and movement of individual body parts Bottom-up processing: trying to make sense of raw sensory data with no prior expectation Top-down processing: our previous expectations and experiences guide your perception schemas: a framework to help individuals organize, interpret, and process information Perceptual sets: a mental predisposition to perceive some aspects of sensory data while ignoring others (influenced by top-down processing) Gestalt psychology: emphasizes that our brains organize sensory information into meaningful, organized wholes (the “big picture”) Closure: people tend to fill in blanks to perceive a complete object wherever an external stimuli partially matches that object Figure and ground: when we separate an object (figure) from its surrounding (ground) Proximity: the tendency to perceive objects that are close together as belonging to a group Similarity: perceiving complex visual information as groups of like things Attention Selective attention: focusing on certain things, while ignoring others Cocktail party effect: an example of selective attention - focusing on one speaker or stimulus while filtering out others 12 Inattentional blindness: failure to perceive visible, unexpected objects in the visual field because attention is focused elsewhere Change blindness: individuals fail to notice significant changes in their visual environment because their attention is focused elsewhere Binocular depth cues: depth cues where you must use both eyes Retinal disparity: the left and right eyes provide slightly different visual images when focusing on a single object Convergence: the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object; the greater the strain, the closer the object Monocular depth cues: depth cues you can see with one eye Relative clarity: hazy or lighter objects appear to be farther away than objects that appear sharp and clear Relative size: if 2 objects are similar in size, most people perceive the one that is smaller as farther away Texture gradient: a surface or field that recedes in depth has a texture that gets finer or smoother Linear perspective: parallel lines appear to meet in the distance; the sharper the angle of convergence, the greater the perceived distance Interposition: if one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer Constancies: the brain’s ability to perceive familiar objects as unchanging (constant) in size, shape, color, and brightness, despite changes in retinal image, distance, or lighting Prototypes: a mental image of the best, “ideal” example of a category Accommodation: creating or changing a schema Assimilation: adding to the same schema algorithms: step-by-step problem-solving Heuristics: everyday decisions; fast, unconscious, automatic, but more error-prone Representativeness heuristic: a mental shortcut where your brain guesses how likely something is by seeing how well it fits a “picture” you already have in your mind Availability heuristic: what comes to mind quickly is deemed significant - sometimes incorrectly Mental set: an obstacle to problem-solving which involves fixating only on solutions that have worked in the past Framing: HOW we present/pose an issue priming: WHAT information is presented; a technique in which the introduction of one stimulus influences how people respond to a subsequent stimulus Gambler’s fallacy: a belief that odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn’t occurred recently Sunk-cost fallacy: the tendency for people to continue something because they’ve 13 already invested their time, energy, and money, even when abandoning it would be more beneficial Executive function: higher-order cognitive processes that enable goal-directed behavior, planning, organization and flexible thinking. Creativity: mental processes and problem-solving that results in original, workable ideas Divergent thinking: finding as many solutions as possible Convergent thinking: finding the single, most correct solution Functional fixedness: an obstacle to problem-solving which involves fixating on an object’s usual purpose memory: the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information Explicit memory: memories and information we can declare, consciously work to remember Episodic memory: memories of specific events and experiences from our lives Semantic memory: general knowledge and facts that we have learned Implicit memory: non-declarative memory, info remembered unconsciously and effortlessly Procedural memory: memory of how to do things Prospective memory: remembering to remember Long-term potentiation: a pattern of neural firing that strengthens synaptic connections over time. As we repeat behaviors and cognitive tasks, we make the neural connections in our brain stronger Working memory model: defines short-term memory as an active system for temporarily storing and manipulating information using the central executive, phonological loop, and visuospatial sketchpad. Central executive: the “boss” of working memory; responsible for controlling attention, planning, coordinating, and switching between tasks Phonological loop: briefly stores and manipulates auditory information Visuospatial sketchpad: briefly stores and manipulates visual information Long-term memory: a relatively permanent and limitless storage of information, skills and experiences Multi-store memory model: defines memory with sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory Sensory memory: brief memory storage after a sensory input Iconic memory: visual input Echoic memory: audio input Short-term memory: the capacity to hold a limited amount of sensory information, 20-30 seconds 14 Automatic processing: unconscious, effortless encoding of information Effortful processing: requires conscious attention and deliberate work to remember Encoding: the processing of information into the memory system Storage: the retention of encoded material over time Retrieval: the process of getting memory out of storage Levels of processing model: memory retention depends on the depth of cognitive processing applied to the information rather than just rehearsal Structural: focus on visual aspects Phonemic: focus on sound Semantic: focus on meaning Mnemonic devices: memory aids Method of loci: use imagined physical locations to aid memory chunking: grouping items into familiar, manageable items so you don’t have to remember as much information categories: grouping concepts hierarchies: ranking concepts Serial position effect: the tendency to recall the first and last items in a list but not the middle Primacy effect: first items Recency effect: last items Maintenance rehearsal: constant repetition of information Elaborative rehearsal: tying information to things we already know and have personal meaning Highly superior autobiographical memory: rare condition that allows individuals to recall nearly every day of their lives with accurate detail Amnesia: biological memory loss Retrograde amnesia: cannot remember the past Anterograde amnesia: cannot remember events past a certain point Infantile amnesia: inability of adults to retrieve episodic memories from the first years of life Alzheimer’s disease: degenerative brain disorder that is associated with memory loss Retrieval cues: signals that help trigger the recall of a memory Context-dependent memory: our memory is more effective when the surrounding context at the time of recall matches the context present during the initial memory formation Mood-congruent memory: the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood 15 State-dependent memory: what we learn in one state may be more easily recalled when we are again in that state (ex. mood, drug-use, pain, sleep deprivation, etc.) Metacognition: thinking about thinking Testing effect: repeated self-testing and rehearsal of previously learned materials Forgetting curve: memories fade over time due to lack of use Encoding failure: when information fails to be encoded due to lack of attention Interference: memory blockage Proactive interference: new memory blocked by old Retroactive interference: old memory blocked by new Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon: memories that are not often retrieved can result in retrieval failure of an elusive memory repression: a defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-inducing thoughts, feelings and memories from our conscious Misinformation effect: the tendency for the information you learned after an event to interfere with your original memory of what happened Source amnesia: a memory impairment where an individual remembers information but can’t recall where, when or how they learned it Constructive memory: memories may be altered by new information related to beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions to fill in gaps of the memory Memory consolidation: the process by which the brain turns short-term memories into long-term memories Imagination inflation: an increased tendency to falsely remember that an item has been seen, or action has been performed, when it has only been imagined intelligence: your ability to learn from experiences, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations g - general intelligence: a single, underlying mental capacity that influences performance Intelligence quotient (IQ): mental age/chronological age x 100 Mental age: a measure of an individual’s intellectual development Chronological age: how old a person is Standardization: establishing a set of norms or standards for comparing individual attest scores to a larger population Validity: the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to measure/predict Construct validity: the extent to which a test measures a theoretical, abstract construct Predictive validity: success in predicting future behavior Reliability: the extent to which a test yields consistent results Test-retest reliability: measures stability over time by having the same person 16 take the same test twice Split-half reliability: checks for internal consistency by comparing scores on two halves of the same test Stereotype threat: the fear that one’s behavior will confirm an existing stereotype of a group with which one identifies; this fear can actually lead to decreased performance Stereotype lift: a performance boost experienced by members of non-stereotyped groups when they are aware of a negative stereotype about a different, marginalized group, leading to downward social comparison that increases self-efficacy and reduces anxiety Flynn Effect: on average, IQ test scores worldwide have been increasing over time Achievement test: assesses current performance Aptitude test: predicts future performance Fixed mindset: assumes intelligence and talent are static, innate traits, leading to avoidance of challenges Growth mindset: believes abilities can be developed through effort and perseverance Developmental psychology Stability vs. change: are personality traits set or continue throughout life, or do they change because of family/environment? Continuous vs. discontinuous development: is development gradual, cumulative and smooth or distinct, abrupt stages? Teratogens: something that can cause birth defects or abnormalities in a developing embryo or fetus Fine motor coordination: small, precise movements Gross motor coordination: large muscle group doing large movements Rooting reflex: you touch/stroke the corner of a baby’s mouth and they should turn their head and open their mouth Visual cliff: tests depth perception in infants critical/sensitive periods: a specific, limited developmental time frame shortly after birth or during early childhood when the brain is exceptionally sensitive to environmental stimuli Adolescence: transitional developmental period from childhood to adulthood, spanning roughly from puberty to independent adulthood puberty: rapid, intense surge of hormones that causes physical maturation Primary sex characteristics: make sexual reproduction possible; ovaries, testes, and external genitalia Secondary sex characteristics: non-reproductive physical traits that emerge during puberty without being directly involved in reproduction 17 Menarche: first menstrual period spermarche: first ejaculation of semen menopause: stopping of menstruation Jean Piaget Stages of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor stage: 0-2 years old; learns through senses and actions Preoperational stage: 2-7 years old; egocentric, difficulty understanding conservation and logic Concrete operational: 7-11 years old; thinks more logically about concrete events, understands conservation Formal operational: 12+ years; develops abstract and hypothetical thinking, thinks about future and moral issues Object permanence: the awareness that objects continue to exist even when they are not in sight Mental symbols: internal, cognitive, and symbolic representations of external reality used to process information, think, and communicate (ex. images, concepts, words) Pretend play: an imaginative form of play where children use objects, actions, or roles to represent other things Conservation: the understanding that certain physical properties of objects - volume, mass, or number - remain the same even when their outward appearance or shape changes Reversibility: understand that objects or numbers can be changed and then returned to their original state or form (ex. 3 + 4 = 7) (7 - 4 = 3) animism: belief that inanimate objects - like toys, dolls, or clouds - possess human-like feelings, intentions, and consciousness egocentrism: children assume that others see, hear, and feel exactly as they do Theory of mind: thinking and understanding another person’s POV abstract/hypothetical thinking: the ability to reason about concepts, possibilities, and “what if” scenarios Lev Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development: the learning gap between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with the guidance of another (parent, teacher, mentor) scaffolding: temporary support provided to learners to help them master a task beyond their current capability Crystallized intelligence: a person’s accumulated knowledge - increases over time Fluid intelligence: raw mental processing speed and pattern recognition - decreases dementia: progressive, chronic or persistent syndrome involving severe decline in memory, language, and cognitive functioning language: complex system of communication that involves the use of words, symbols, 18 or signs to express thoughts, ideas, and emotions phonemes: smallest, distinct units of sound morphemes: smallest unit of language that carries meaning semantics: rules used to derive meaning from sounds, words and sentences Grammar: the system of rules governing the structure and usage of a language syntax: specific rules for ordering words into sentences Language Development Cooing: “ooh,” “ah” sounds Babbling: produce repetitive consonant-vowel combinations One-Word Stage: use single words to convey meaning Telegraphic Speech: use two-word or short, condensed phrases Overgeneralization of language rules: a phase in child language acquisition where children apply regular grammatical rules to irregular words (ex. “goed,” “eated”) Ecological systems theory: argues that human development is shaped by interconnected environmental systems Microsystem: home life, parents, school, friends, siblings, neighborhood Mesosystem: interaction between kids, teachers, and parents Exosystem: mass media, social services, local government, parents’ workplace Macrossystem: values, attitudes, laws and legal systems, ideologies, political system, nationality Chonosystem: historical events, environmental changes, change over time Parenting styles Authoritarian: domineering, dictatorial, enforce punishments, unresponsive Authoritative: enforce rules, provide warmth and support Permissive: lenient, few demands, “friend” Attachment: An emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to their caregiver and showing distress in separation Secure attachment: greets parents with positive emotions Insecure attachment Avoidant: may avoid parents Anxious: confusion or apprehension Disorganized: wary of strangers Temperament: an infant’s innate, biologically-based characteristic style of emotional reactivity and behavioral regulation Separation anxiety: distress infants and young children feel when separated from primary caregivers Harlow Monkey Experiment: attachment is primarily based on “contact comfort” rather than nourishment Parallel play: when young children play beside each other but do not directly interact, 19 share, or communicate Social clock: culturally preferred timing for major life events (ex. starting a career, marriage, having kids) Emerging adulthood: developmental stage between adolescence and full adulthood, characterized by identity exploration, and feeling “in-between” Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development: each stage of development is defined by a core conflict that shapes personality and identity; successfully resolving conflicts leads to healthy social development Trust and mistrust: (0-2 years) Can I trust my caregiver? Autonomy and shame and doubt: (2-4 years) Can I do things myself, or am I reliant on the help of others? Initiative and guilt: (4-5 years) Is it OK for me to do things on my own? Industry and inferiority: (5-12 years) Am I competent and capable? Identity and role confusion: (13-19 years) Who am I? Intimacy and isolation: (20-40 years) Can I form meaningful relationships without losing myself? Generativity and stagnation: (40-65 years) Am I making a difference or am I just existing? Integrity and despair: (65-death) Have I lived a meaningful, fulfilling life? Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs): traumatic events before age 18 (ex. abuse, neglect, household dysfunction) that significantly increase risks for long-term physical, mental, and behavioral health issues Identity Achievement: individuals have explored various beliefs, values, and career options and have made a firm, personal commitment to them Identity Diffusion: lack of both exploration and commitment to an identity Identity foreclosure: when an individual commits to an identity, values, or a future path prematurely without exploring alternatives Identity moratorium: high exploration but low commitment to an identity learning: change in a subject’s behavior to a given situation brought about by their repeated experiences in that situation Associative learning: Classical conditioning: a form of learning where an association is made between a neutral stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus that involuntarily elicits a response Operant conditioning: voluntary behaviors increase or decrease depending on whether the person receives rewards or punishments Classical Conditioning: Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): a person, place, thing that triggers a response Unconditioned response (UCR): an unlearned reaction Neutral stimulus (NS): a random person, place, thing that evokes no response Conditioned stimulus (CS): the neutral stimulus that now triggers a response Conditioned response (CR): a learned reaction 20 Acquisition: behavior gained Extinction: behavior lost Spontaneous Recovery: behavior regained Stimulus discrimination: differentiating between stimuli for reaction Stimulus generalization: reacting to various stimuli Higher-order conditioning: transferable CS Counterconditioning: pairing the stimulus that triggers the undesired response with a new, positive stimulus or experience Taste aversion: the association is acquired through one pairing of the stimulus and response and is not strengthened by further pairings One-trial conditioning: respond to a newly learned stimulus after one time Biological preparedness: our innate readiness or predisposition to learn certain associations quicker because they have been adaptive for survival Habituation: conscious “tuning out” of constant, non-threatening stimuli Law of Effect: behaviors followed by rewarding consequences are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by unpleasant or punishing consequences are less likely to be repeated. Reinforcement: increase/maintain behavior Positive reinforcement: add something good Negative reinforcement: take away something bad Punishment: decrease behavior Positive punishment: add something bad Negative punishment: take away something good Primary reinforcers: an unlearned, innate stimulus that is biologically important to an organism (food, water, sex, shelter, etc.) secondary reinforcers: things we have learned to value (money, paid vacations, praise, etc.) shaping: gradually guiding behavior closer to the desired behavior; all other responses ignored Instinctive drift: tendency of an animal to abandon learned, conditioned behaviors and revert to natural, instinctual behaviors over time Superstitious behavior: occurs when consequences reinforce unrelated behaviors Learned helplessness: when you learn that you have no control over your experience of aversive consequences in a given situation Continuous reinforcement: an operant conditioning schedule where a desired behavior is rewarded every single time it occurs 21 Schedules of partial reinforcement Fixed-interval: reinforcing a behavior after a set # of time has passed Fixed-ratio: reinforcing a behavior after a set # of responses Variable-interval: reinforcing a behavior after an average # of time has passed Variable-ratio: reinforcing a behavior after an average # of responses Social learning theory: you learn by watching others Vicarious conditioning: learning without experiencing it personally yourself modeling: behavior is acquired by observing and imitating others Insight learning: a solution to a problem appears suddenly as an “a-ha!” moment rather than through trial-and-error Latent learning: knowledge that only becomes clear when a person has an incentive to display it Cognitive maps: mental representation or “map” of one’s physical environment Attributions: how individuals interpret the cause of their own and others’ behaviors Dispositional attribution: blaming the person’s personality, intelligence or attitude (internal) Situational attribution: blaming the person’s circumstances (external) Explanatory style: how we explain events Optimistic: attribute setbacks to temporary, external, and specific factors Pessimistic: blame internal, stable, and global factors for failures Actor-observer bias: the fundamental attribution error + a tendency to attribute OUR behavior to external, situational factors Fundamental attribution error: the tendency to overestimate internal, dispositional factors for OTHERS’ behaviors Self-serving bias: the tendency to attribute one’s successes to internal factors and one’s failures to external factors Mere exposure effect: repeated exposure to something increases one’s liking for it Self-fulfilling prophecy: when a belief about someone or something leads people to act in ways that confirm that belief Social comparison: Upward social comparison: comparing yourself to someone “better” Downward social comparison: comparing yourself to someone “worse” Relative deprivation: the perception that one is worse off compared to a reference group or standard, leading to feelings of frustration, envy, and discontent Stereotype: oversimplified and generalized beliefs about the characteristics of a group Implicit attitude: hidden biases Just-world phenomenon: the tendency to believe that the world is inherently 22 fair and people get what they deserve Out-group homogeneity bias: you view members of an outgroup as highly similar to one another, while viewing members of your ingroup as diverse and unique individuals In-group bias: the tendency to favor individuals Ethnocentrism: the belief that your ethnicity is better than others Belief perseverance: people cling to their initial beliefs or conceptions after they’ve been discredited Cognitive dissonance: a mental distress that occurs when a person’s behavior conflicts with a deeply held belief Social norms: the understood, unspoken, rules and shared expectations Social influence theory: how an individual’s attitudes, beliefs and behaviors are shaped by the real or imagined presence, actions, and pressure of others Normative social influence: wanting approval or acceptance from a group Informational social influence: assuming others possess better information about the correct behavior Persuasion Central route persuasion: a person persuaded based on evidence and arguments that aim to trigger favorable thoughts Peripheral route persuasion: a person is persuaded by something other than the argument or content of the message (ex. how attractive the person is) Halo Effect: our overall impression of someone influences how we feel and think about them Foot-in-the-door: making a small request before building up to a larger one Door-in-the-face: a large request is made first (expecting refusal), followed by a smaller request that seems more reasonable in comparison conformity: when individuals adjust their behaviors to match that of a group Individualism: prioritizes the personal autonomy, self-expression, and individual goals Collectivism: prioritizes group harmony, duty, and interdependence Multiculturalism: the recognition, appreciation, and promotion of equal status for diverse ethnic, racial, and cultural groups within a society Group polarization: group discussions lead people to adopt more extreme positions groupthink: desire for harmony and conformity leads to poor decision-making, as dissent is discouraged Diffusion of responsibility: people in a group often feel less personal obligation when there are more people available Social loafing: some members put in less effort because the group shares responsibility Deindividuation: individuals lose self-awareness and self-restraint in group settings Social facilitation: the tendency to perform better on simple or well-rehearsed tasks 23 and worse on complex or new tasks when in the presence of others False consensus effect: people overestimate the extent to which their own opinions, beliefs, preferences, values, and habits are normal and typical of those of others Superordinate goals: shared objectives that override differences between people, requiring joint effort and cooperation from two or more groups to be achieved Industrial-organizational (I/O) psychologists: application of psychological principles to the workplace, aimed at improving employee productivity, health, and satisfaction Burnout: physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion Altruism: the unselfish concern for the welfare of others - acting without expecting personal gain or reward Social reciprocity norm: an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them. Social responsibility norm: a societal expectation that individuals should help those who are dependent or in need Bystander effect: people in a group often feel less personal obligation to act in an emergency because they assume others will help Psychodynamic theory of personality: believed that much of people’s behavior is controlled by a region of the brain he called the unconscious. The unconscious stores all of the unacceptable thoughts and desires. Id: “devil”; strives for immediate gratification Ego: the mediator between the demands of the id and superego Superego: “angel”; conscious and moral compass Ego defense mechanisms: tactics to unconsciously reduce to redirect anxiety by distorting reality Denial: refusing to believe an idea that causes anxiety Displacement: changing the target of one’s aggression Projection: taking how one feels and placing it on someone else Rationalization: making excuses for one’s situation or cause of anxiety Reaction formation: expressing the exact opposite emotion of what one feels Regression: acting like a younger age when anxiety was not expected Repression: get rid of the cause of anxiety by pushing thoughts out of your conscious memory Sublimation: re-channeling emotions into a socially acceptable activity Projective tests: personality assessments that use ambiguous, unstructured stimuli to reveal an individual’s unconscious, hidden emotions, conflicts, and motivations Humanistic theory of personality: Unconditional positive regard: an attitude of total acceptance towards another person Self-actualizing tendency: the process of fulfilling our potential Social-Cognitive Theory of Personality: Reciprocal determinism: interacting influences of behavior, thoughts and environments 24 Self-concept: the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions Self-efficacy: our belief in our ability or competence in a task self-esteem: our feelings of high or low self-worth Trait Theory of Personality: personality is defined by stable and enduring behavior patterns, which are influenced by genetic predispositions The Big Five Theory of Personality Agreeableness: how soft-hearted, trusting, helpful Openness to experience: imaginative, prefers variety, independent Extraversion: sociable, fun-loving, affectionate Conscientiousness: organized, careful, disciplined Emotional stability (formerly neuroticism): anxious, insecure, self-pitying Personality inventories: a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree answers) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors Drive-reduction theory: physiological needs creates an aroused tension state (drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need (reduction) Yerkes-Dodson Law: there is an ideal level of anxiety or stress that leads to peak performance Self-determination theory: Intrinsic motivation: the drive to engage in an activity for internal satisfaction, enjoyment, or personal interest Extrinsic motivation: the drive to act in order to earn external rewards, such as money, grades, or praise Instincts: innate, unlearned and genetically inherited fixed patterns of behavior Lewin’s Motivational Conflicts Theory: decision-making involves conflicts that create internal tension, motivating behavior Approach-approach: choosing between two good choices Approach-avoidance: choosing between a good and bad choice Avoidance-avoidance: choosing between two bad choices Sensation-seeking theory: our motivation comes from a desire for new or exciting experiences Experience seeking: looking for new ideas and experiences Thrill or adventure seeking: wanting to engage in risky or exciting activities Disinhibition: seeking situations that lower self-control or social norms Boredom susceptibility: finding it hard to tolerate repetitive or dull situations Emotion: a complex state of feeling that results in physical and psychological changes that influence thought and behavior. James-Lange theory of emotion: physiological response → emotion Cannon-Bard theory of emotion: physiological response and emotion occur at the same time 25 Two factor theory: physiological response + cognitive label = emotion Facial feedback theory: our facial expressions influence our emotional experience Broaden-and-build theory of emotion: positive emotions help increase awareness, boost coping ability, and improve resilience Universality of emotions: anger, disgust, sadness, happiness, surprise, contempt, and fear are universal across cultures Display rules for emotion: culture-specific rules that govern the how, when and why expressions of emotion are appropriate stress: the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events that we determine are threatening or challenging Eustress: short-term (positive) stress that motivates and focuses energy distress: (negative) stress that exceeds an individual’s ability to cope and disrupts daily functioning General adaptation syndrome (GAS): how the body responds to prolonged stress Alarm (fight-flight-freeze response): initial, immediate reaction to stressor Resistance: tries to adapt to the ongoing stressor Exhaustion: burnout, fatigue, and increased vulnerability to illness Tend-and-befriend theory: under stress, people (especially women) may nurture themselves and others (tend) and bond and seek support from others (befriend) Problem-focused coping: coming up with solutions - planning, seeking help, and taking action emotion-focused coping: manages emotional stress such as meditation, talking, and distraction, rather than addressing the problem Positive psychology: the study of what enables individuals to thrive Resilience: the personal strength and capacity to adapt and bounce back from adversity Subjective well-being: an individual’s personal evaluation and experience of their own happiness and positive emotions. Signature strengths: an individual’s most prominent, authentive, and energizing character traits Wisdom Courage Humanity Justice Temperance Transcendence Posttraumatic growth: referring to positive psychological changes, increased personal strength, and appreciation for life that individuals experience as a result of challenging, traumatic events 26 Psychological disorders: deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional patterns of thoughts, feelings or behaviors that interfere with daily life DSM-5: diagnostic manual for categorizing disorders ICD: International Classification of Diseases published by the WHO for physical and mental health conditions Eclectic approach: therapy strategy that includes strategies from different schools Biopsychosocial model: explains behavior and mental processes through genetics, thoughts and emotions, and environment Diathesis-stress model: mental health conditions results from an interaction between a pre-existing vulnerability and life stress Neurodevelopmental disorders: originating in early childhood, characterized by developmental deficits Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): inattention, hyperactivity, and/or impulsivity that interferes with functioning Autism spectrum disorder (ASD): deficits in social communication and interaction, and restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities Schizophrenic spectrum disorders: loss of contact with reality, hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech, or catatonic behavior Delusions: false, irrational beliefs Hallucinations: false, imaginary sensory perceptions Disorganized thinking and speech: illogical, fragmented, incoherent thought and speech process Positive symptoms: add-on symptoms Negative symptoms: absence of normal behaviors Disorganized motor behavior: Catatonia (positive symptom): severe disturbance in motor behavior, immobility Stupor (negative symptom): state of lethargy, extreme near-unconsciousness Flat affect: severe reduction or total absence of emotional expression - monotone voice, expressionless face, lack of nonverbal cues Dopamine hypothesis for schizophrenia: too much dopamine potentially contributes to the positive symptoms of schizophrenia Depressive disorders: sad or empty moods, lack of motivation, disruptions in daily life Major depressive disorder: persistent, intense sadness and a loss of interest in activities lasting two weeks or more Persistent depressive disorder: chronic, low-grade form of depression that lasts for at least 2 years Bipolar disorders: mood disorder characterized by alternating episodes of mania and 27 depression Bipolar I disorder: presence of at least one severe manic episode, which may be preceded by a depressive episode Bipolar II disorder: alternating periods of major depression and mania, but mania not as intense as in Bipolar I mania: abnormal elevated arousal, energy and mood Anxiety Disorders: persistent, excessive and uncontrollable worry Specific phobia: intense, irrational fear of a specific object, situation, or activity that poses little to no actual danger Agoraphobia: fear of social situations/public spaces Panic disorder: recurrent, unexpected panic attacks Social anxiety disorder: intense fear of being watched, judged, embarrassed in social situations Generalized anxiety disorder: chronic, excessive worry about everyday, routine life circumstances Arachnophobia: fear of spiders Acrophobia: fear of heights Ataque de nervios: intense emotional outburst triggered by family-related stress Panic attacks: sudden, intense episodes of overwhelming fear, terror occurring without an immediate, obvious threat Taijin kyofusho: Japanese; intense, irrational fear that one’s body, functions, or appearance will embarrass or displease others Obsessive-compulsive Disorders: Obsessive-compulsive disorder: persistent, unwanted thoughts that cause high anxiety, leading to repetitive behaviors performed to reduce stress Hoarding disorder: persistent difficulty discarding possessions, and distress getting rid of them obsession: persistent, recurring, and intrusive thoughts that cause distress, anxiety Compulsion: repetitive, purposeful behaviors to reduce anxiety Dissociative disorders: disruption in consciousness, memory, identity, emotion or perception Dissociative amnesia (with and without fugue): sudden, often temporary, inability to recall important personal information Fugue: the sudden, unexpected travel away from home, amnesia regarding one’s past and the adoption of a new identity Dissociative Identity Disorder: the presence of two or more alternating personality states that control behavior, accompanied by significant memory gaps Trauma and Stressor-Related Disorders: Posttraumatic stress disorder: lingering memories, nightmares, avoidance behavior, and anxiety after a traumatic event 28 Feeding and Eating Disorders Anorexia Nervosa: restricted food intake leading to significantly low body weight, a fear of gaining weight and distorted body image Bulimia Nervosa: binge-eating large amounts of food followed by purging, fasting, or excessive exercise to prevent weight gain Personality Disorders: enduring, inflexible, and pervasive patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving that deviate from social norms Cluster A: paranoid (extreme distrust and suspicion of others), schizoid (detachment from social relationships, isolation), and schizotypal personality disorder (intense discomfort in close relationships, magical thinking) Cluster B: antisocial (pervasive disregard for the rights of others, lack of remorse), histrionic (attention-seeking), narcissistic (pattern of grandiosity, need for admiration, and lack of empathy), and borderline personality disorders (intense instability in relationships, impulsivity) Cluster C: avoidant (extreme shyness, social inhibition), dependent (pervasive, excessive need to be taken care of), and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders (unhealthy preoccupation with orderliness, perfectionism, and control) Psychotherapy: treatment of disorders through psychological techniques - talk therapy Therapeutic alliance: trusting, collaborative, and empathetic relationship between therapist and client Psychodynamic therapy: to uncover the patient’s unconscious mind and bring repressed feelings to conscious awareness and gain insight into the origins of their disorders Free association: saying aloud whatever comes to mind to gain an understanding of the unconscious Dream interpretation: analyzing the content and symbols of dreams Cognitive therapy: assumes our thinking affects our feelings; teaches people new, adaptive ways of thinking Applied behavior analysis: used to support those with autism and developmental disabilities Exposure therapies: exposing people (in imaginary or real situations) to the things they fear and avoid Systematic desensitization: associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli Aversion therapies: associates an unpleasant state (like nausea) with an unwanted behavior (like drinking alcohol) Token economies: modifies behavior by rewarding desired actions with tokens (secondary reinforcers) that can be exchanged for prizes or privileges Cognitive-behavior therapy: changes self-defeating thinking through changing your behavior Dialectical behavior therapy: helps individuals manage intense emotions, reduce self-destructive behaviors and improve relationships Rational-emotive behavior therapy: challenges people’s illogical, self-defeating attitudes and assumptions Humanistic therapy/person-centered therapy: help patients become the best possible 29 version of themselves → lead client to self-awareness and self-acceptance Active listening: listening and echoes/restates/seeks clarification Group therapy: allows people to see that they are not alone - other people share their problems Hypnosis: a social interaction where a hypnotist suggests to a subject certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts,or behaviors will occur antidepressants: drugs used to treat depression, anxiety disorders, OCD, and PTSD Antianxiety drugs: drugs used to control anxiety and agitation lithium: a mood-stabilizer used for bipolar patients Antipsychotic medications: drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other severe thought disorders Tardive dyskinesia: sluggishness, tremors and twitches Psychosurgery: Lesioning: intentionally destroying a part of the brain TMS (transcranial magnetic stimulation): application of repeated pulses of magnetic energy to the brain; used to stimulate or suppress brain activity Electroconvulsive therapy: for severe depression; where a brief electrical current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized person Lobotomy: used to calm uncontrollably emotional or violent patients; cut the nerves connecting the frontal lobes to the limbic system 30 NOTABLE PSYCHOLOGISTS 1. Mary Ainsworth: emotional attachment with the “Strange Situation” 2. Solomon Asch: conducted experiments on conformity 3. Albert Bandura: Bobo Doll experiment – explained the social learning theory. Aggression is learned through observing and imitating others. 4. Aaron Beck: the father of cognitive therapy 5. Alfred Binet: French psychologist that came up with the first widely used intelligence test and mental age 6. Albert Ellis: developed rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT) 7. Erik Erikson: a Neo-Freudian; most famous for his stages of psychosocial development, which are based on Freud’s five stages. Each of the 8 stages includes a crisis that needs to be overcome in order to develop normally. 8. Leon Festinger: experiment on cognitive dissonance 9. Sigmund Freud: the father of modern psychology and psychoanalysis. Believed that the unconscious determines everything we do. His theories include the three parts of the mind/personality – the id, ego, and superego. He also came up with the defense mechanisms (repression, denial, projection, displacement, regression, sublimation, reaction formation, rationalization). Believed that dream interpretation, free association, and hypnosis could reveal the unconscious mind. 10. Phineas Gage*: a railroad worker who had a large iron rod go completely through his left frontal lobe while working. He became a very angry person after his accident. His case concluded that the frontal lobe affects personality. 11. Howard Gardner: Created the theory of multiple intelligences that opposed Spearman’s idea of one general intelligence. Believed that people had either a visuospatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, linguistic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, logical-mathematical, and naturalistic intelligences. 12. Genie the Feral Child*: a child that was a victim of abuse, neglect, and social isolation. Revealed that there is a critical period for language acquisition after which it is difficult to learn. 13. Harry Harlow: raised monkeys with two artificial mothers – one represented nourishment and the other contact/comfort. Discovered ideas of attachment in infants. 14. Elizabeth Loftus: known for her work in the study of false memories and misinformation effect 15. Konrad Lorenz: rediscovered imprinting which famously included Lorenz acting as the mother-figure for Mallard ducks. There is a critical period for attachment 31 16. Stanley Milgram: famous for his electroshock experiment. The authority figure told the teacher to test the learner word pairs, and if the learner were to answer wrong, the teacher would have to punish the student by electric shocks which got stronger each time. Although no actual shocks were given, more than 60% had “shocked” the learner up to full voltage. Addressed the atrocities of the Holocaust. 17. Henry Molaison (Patient HM)*: had an experimental neurosurgery to control seizures, where they removed part of his hippocampus. As a result, he developed retrograde amnesia 18. Ivan Pavlov: his experiments with dogs led him to discover classical conditioning. Discovered that he could condition dogs to salivate at the sound of a tone when the tone was repeatedly presented with food. He also discovered that if he sounded the bell over and over then the reaction would become extinct, but it may reappear the next day when the bell is sounded (spontaneous recovery). 19. Jean Piaget: studied the cognitive development of children. Defined four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. 20. Carl Rogers: humanistic psychologist who used the theory of self-concept. To help his clients get back on the road to self-actualization, he developed client-centered therapy, in which the therapist incorporates active listening and unconditional positive regard. 21. David Rosenhan: studied the effects of diagnostic labeling with his experiment “Being Sane in Insane Places.” 22. B.F. Skinner: associated with operant conditioning and responsible for the Skinner Box. 23. Robert Sternberg: distinguished three aspects of intelligence – PAC – practical intelligence (street smarts), analytical intelligence (book smarts), and creative intelligence (artistic). 24. Edward L. Thorndike: known for the law of effect – the principle that rewarded behavior is likely to recur and punished behavior is unlikely to recur. 25. John Watson: established the idea of behaviorism and conducted the “Little Albert” experiment 26. Benjamin Lee Whorf: proposed that one’s language and grammar patterns shape one’s view of reality – linguistic determinism. 27. Philip Zimbardo: his experiment assessed how role-playing affects attitudes. Famous for the Stanford Prison Experiment. *Highlight indicates a case study 32 TRICKY TERMS TO KNOW THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN! PSYCHODYNAMIC Refers to the school of psychology PSYCHOANALYTIC Refers to the theory of personality or type of therapy proposed by Freud CORRELATION Indicates a relationship between two variables EXPERIMENT Determines cause and effect between two variables. R-VALUE Correlation coefficient – is there a relationship between the two variables (determined by number between -1 and +1) P-VALUE Statistical significance – the probability that your data will repeat itself RANDOM ASSIGNMENT Allows each person in your sample an equal chance of being in the experiment or control groups. RANDOM SAMPLE Allows each person in your population of an equal chance of being in your experiment. INDEPENDENT VARIABLE What is being studied; the variable you manipulate. DEPENDENT VARIABLE What is being measured; the effect of the independent variable being manipulated. 33 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS Summarized or described data INFERENTIAL STATISTICS Applying the sample data to the entire population STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE Shows that an effect exists in a study (like descriptive statistics) calculated through p-values PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCE Shows that the effect is large enough to be meaningful to a larger population calculated through effect size MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY Measures the middle or average of the data ex. mean, median, mode MEASURES OF VARIABILITY Measures how spread out the data is ex. range, standard deviation, variance POSITIVE SKEW Tail is dragging on the right NEGATIVE SKEW Tail is dragging on the left ILLUSORY CORRELATION A perceived relationship between variables that do not actually exist SPURIOUS CORRELATION Two variables appear connected, but are not causally linked because of a third, unseen variable 34 EEG An electrical scan; listens to the chatter in the brain, but it’s muffled by thick walls (your skull) MEG A magnetic scan; feels the vibrations from the talking directly, allowing doctors to hear the conversation directly CT X-ray image, not really clear MRI You can see more detail of the soft, brain tissue SENSORY=AFFERENT NEURONS SAME = ARRIVES to brain MOTOR=EFFERENT NEURONS SAME = Exits the brain 35 AGONIST MIMIC a neurotransmitter and “open the door” to continue relaying the message ANTAGONIST BLOCK a neurotransmitter by “closing the door” REFLEX Simple responses of an organism to a specific stimulus Ex. Contraction of the pupil in response to bright light, knee-jerk response INSTINCT Inborn complex patterns of behavior that exist in most members of the species Ex. Sexuality and hunger SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM Arouses the body PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM R = relaxes the body PINEAL GLAND Helps regulate biological rhythms, sleep PITUITARY GLAND “Master gland” Helps regulate biological processes, like stimulating hunger NEUROTRANSMITTERS A fast, chemical messenger that travels between neurons in the nervous system HORMONES A slow, chemical messenger that is released by the endocrine system SUBSTANCE P Neuropeptide Detects pain ENDORPHINS Neurotransmitter Dulls pain 36 LOCALIZATION Specifically where in the right or left side is it located? LATERALIZATION Which side of the brain is a function located? Left or right? LATERAL HYPOTHALAMUS Stimulation causes hunger. Stimulate the “LAT” makes you “FAT” VENTROMEDIAL HYPOTHALAMUS Stimulation curbs/stops hunger. Stimulate the “VEN” makes you “THIN” BROCA’S AREA Sounds like “boca” = mouth; produces speech WERNICKE’S AREA Comprehends speech/language IMPLICIT PROCESSING Your unconscious track EXPLICIT PROCESSING Your conscious track NREM Non-rapid eye movement - NO DREAM REM Rapid eye movement - dream state! SENSATION Bottom-up processing PERCEPTION Top-down processing TOP-DOWN PROCESSING “Have I seen this before?” Your expectations guide what you are looking at BOTTOM-UP PROCESSING “What am I looking at?” No past experience and you have to figure out using your senses 37 ABSOLUTE THRESHOLD The minimum intensity of stimulus to detect it 50% of the time. Ex. When you feel a hair on you DIFFERENCE THRESHOLD Whether you can tell that 2 stimuli are different 50% of the time. Ex. Blue light vs. warm light SENSORY ADAPTATION Diminished attention/sensitivity to a stimulus HABITUATION Diminished arousal due to constantly being exposed to a stimulus RODS See best in the dark, black and white CONES See best in the day, color (we have 3 = red, green, and blue) OPPONENT-PROCESS THEORY Explains why we can see afterimages TRICHROMATIC COLOR THEORY Explains why with the 3 cones we have we can see a spectrum of color MONOCULAR CUE 👁 Depth that can be seen with ONE eye BINOCULAR CUE 👁👁 Depth that can be seen with TWO eyes 38 SENSORINEURAL HEARING LOSS Damage to the inner (“ineur”) ear or auditory nerve that affects the transmission of sound signals CONDUCTIVE HEARING LOSS When there are problems with the outer or middle ear that obstructs soundwaves from reaching the inner ear WAVELENGTH AMPLITUDE CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Involuntary learned behavior OPERANT CONDITIONING Voluntary learned behavior ACQUISITION A behavior is learned, generally speaking HIGHER-ORDER CONDITIONING A new neutral stimulus is used instead of a previously conditioned stimulus to exhibit the conditioned response REINFORCEMENT Increases behavior PUNISHMENT Decreases behavior PRIMARY REINFORCERS An unlearned, innate stimulus that is biologically important to an organism SECONDARY REINFORCERS Things we have learned to value (like money, paid vacations, praise, etc.) 39 ASSIMILATION Adding to Same Schema ACCOMMODATION Changing or Creating New Schema FINE MOTOR MOVEMENT Small, precise movements GROSS MOTOR MOVEMENT Large muscle groups doing large movements EGOCENTRISM Can only view things from their own POV because they LACK theory of mind THEORY OF MIND Ability to understand others’ POV and discern emotional cues PHONEMES Basic sound units Ex. REMAINED = /r/ /ee/ /m/ /ae/ /n/ /d/ MORPHEMES Smallest units of meaning Ex. REMAINED = re – main – ed AUTHORITARIAN …is a barbarian (domineering, dictatorial, enforce punishments) AUTHORITATIVE Give and take - enforce rules but also provide warmth and support SEX BIOLOGICAL differentiation between male and female GENDER SOCIAL differentiation between girl, boy, man, and woman SCHEMA A mental representation of an object or concept PROTOTYPE An idealized version of an object or concept 40 ICONIC MEMORY “EYE”conic; Visual ECHOIC MEMORY Auditory FUNCTIONAL FIXEDNESS The inability to perceive a new use for an object associated with a different purpose. MENTAL SET An obstacle to problem-solving which involves fixating only on solutions that have worked in the past. PRIMACY EFFECT First items remembered RECENCY EFFECT Most recent/last items remembered IMPLICIT MEMORY (Non-declarative) Physical memories; generally stored in the cerebellum Ex. How to tie shoes, skip, ride a bike EXPLICIT MEMORY (Declarative) We can say them; generally processed through the hippocampus Ex. Your name, phone numbers, facts ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA Can’t form new memories RETROGRADE AMNESIA Retro = old, can’t remember old memories PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE Previously learned material causes us to forget NEW material RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCE Recently learned material causes us to forget OLD (retro) material FRAMING HOW the information is presented PRIMING WHAT information is presented ALGORITHM Step-by-step, guaranteed to succeed strategies ex. Directors to build a child’s toy, a formula HEURISTIC Shortcuts; rule of thumb strategies (I before E except after C); common to human thinking, but more error-prone 41 REPRESENTATIVENESS HEURISTIC Judge the probability of an event according to the degree to which that event resembles a broader class. AVAILABILITY HEURISTIC What comes to mind quickly is deemed significant – sometimes incorrectly. MENTAL SET An obstacle to problem-solving which involves fixating only on solutions that have worked in the past FUNCTIONAL FIXEDNESS A type of mental set - fixating on the object’s usual purpose DIVERGENT THINKING CONVERGENT THINKING ACHIEVEMENT TEST Measures what you already know (AP Psychology Exam) APTITUDE TEST Predicts your future ability (SAT) 42 CONSTRUCT VALIDITY Does the test measure what it’s supposed to measure? PREDICTIVE VALIDITY Predicts your future performance on similar subjects (aptitude) FLUID INTELLIGENCE Processing speed, how quickly you can come up with an answer; DECREASES WITH AGE CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE Facts, details, accumulated knowledge INCREASES WITH AGE FIXED MINDSET Talents are innate and unchangeable GROWTH MINDSET The belief that abilities and intelligence can be developed through effort, learning, and persistence INTRINSIC MOTIVATION Motivation from within EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION Motivation from outside – money, prizes, etc. INTERNAL LOCUS OF CONTROL You have control over the situation EXTERNAL LOCUS OF CONTROL You feel like the situation is out of your hands. TYPE A A = angry, loud, competitive TYPE B Relaxed, patient, outgoing 43 REPRESSION Pushing unwanted thoughts into the unconscious REGRESSION Moving back in psychological time when one is faced with stress, act more childlike SELF-ESTEEM High/low feelings of self-worth SELF-EFFICACY Belief that you can or cannot do it INDIVIDUALIST USA – cultures that emphasize individuality and personal success over the group – be unique! COLLECTIVIST JAPAN – cultures that emphasize the family and group over the individual – don’t stand out! SITUATIONAL ATTRIBUTION DISPOSITIONAL ATTRIBUTION FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ERROR A tendency to OVERESTIMATE dispositional factors for OTHERS’ behaviors ACTOR-OBSERVER BIAS Fundamental Attribution Error + a tendency to attribute OUR behavior to situational factors CONFORMITY When individuals adjust their behaviors to match that of a group OBEDIENCE When a person follows the instructions of an authority figure NORMATIVE SOCIAL INFLUENCE Wanting approval or acceptance from a group INFORMATIONAL SOCIAL INFLUENCE Assuming others possess better information about the correct behavior 44 FOOT-IN-THE-DOOR Making a small request before building up a to a larger one DOOR-IN-THE-FACE A large request is made first (expecting refusal), followed by a smaller request that seems more reasonable in comparison SOCIAL RECIPROCITY NORM An expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY NORM A societal expectation that individuals should help those who are dependent or in need CENTRAL ROUTE PERSUASION Opinions that are influenced by facts and thinking PERIPHERAL ROUTE PERSUASION Opinions that are influenced by humor, fear, desirability, etc. ANXIETY DISORDER Mild, short or long durations, and gradual anxiety that builds over time PANIC DISORDER Experience panic attacks – intense, short, and sudden OBSESSION The anxiety-ridden thought COMPULSION The action done to reduce the anxiety-ridden thought FEAR An unpleasant emotion caused by the threat of danger, pain or harm PHOBIA An extreme or irrational fear of or aversion to something that impacts your day to day activities 45 SYSTEMATIC DESENSITIZATION Behavior therapy designed to reduce anxiety responses by exposure to limited intensity, keeping calm, then increasing anxiety AVERSIVE CONDITIONING Pair bad with bad-pair negative stimulus (drug that makes you vomit) with unwanted behavior (wanting to drink alcohol) to reduce behavior