PHIL 201 Notes

Determinism

The view that all choices are predetermined by causes external to the one making the choice

Causal Determinism

The view that all choices result from chains of antecedent external causes

Theological determinism

the view that all choices are ultimately caused by God

Libertarianism

The belief that humans have free will, which is incompatible with determinism.

Indeterministic libertarianism

People’s choices are free because choices are spontaneous and therefore not predetermined by any external cause

Agency theory

Personal agents are the direct cause of their actions.

Compatibilism

Choices are events whose causes are internal to the one making the choice, things like the person’s tastes, preferences, beliefs, values, etc. Therefore, your choices are determined by your nature and you are free to do whatever is consistent with that

Soft determinism

A form of compatibilism where human freedom and determinism coexist.

Ethics

The study of theories or systems of moral values.

Metaethics

Concerned with the difference between right and wrong.

Applied ethics

The application of ethical principles to real-life situations.

Ethical cultural relativism

The view that morality varies from culture to culture, with no moral absolutes (opposite of ethical absolutism)

Ethical subjectivism

The belief that ethical principles are subjective matters of preference (opposite of ethical objectivism)

Ethical emotivism

Moral statements are expressions of feelings rather than facts.

Consequentialism

Ethical theories that evaluate actions based on their consequences.

Ethical egoism

Judging actions based on their ability to produce happiness for the individual (Epicurus and Ayn Rand)

Utilitarianism

Judging actions based on their ability to produce the greatest good for the most people (Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill)

Duty ethics

Acting according to maxims that could become universal laws (Emmanuel Kant)

Virtue ethics

Cultivating a balanced character that avoids extremes (Aristotle)

Natural Law Ethics

Ethical principles are discernable in human nature and the natural world (Thomas Aquinas)

Telos

Meaning of life in Greek.

Intrinsic

Purpose inherent in life itself.

Extrinsic

Purpose conferred on life by something else.

Purpose

The reason for which something exists.

Naturalism

Only historical reason for existence.

Theism

Historical and teleological reasons for existence.

Arguments for life after death

Ultimate justice, reincarnation, communication with the dead, near-death experience.

Basic biblical truths about death

Inevitable, not the end of existence, may involve punishment or reward, can be something to look forward to.

The Causality Argument

All choices result from causes

The divine sovereignty argument

If God is sovereign, then everything is controlled by God

The foreknowledge argument

If God knows the future, then we have no choice but to do what He already knows

The intuition argument

The fact that we struggle at some points to make a decision shows that we have the freedom of choice

The moral argument

If people don’t have a freedom of choice, then we are not morally accountable of our actions

The theodical argument

If determinism is true and God exists, then God is the cause of all evil in the world

The reduction to causal determinism argument

The things that cause your inner beliefs and values are the things external to you

Ethics is the study, metaethics is the hypothetical, applied ethics is put to use

Difference between ethics?

Ethical relativism

The belief that ethics are not objective. They are subjective to a multitude of factors

The diversity thesis

The absence of universal agreement indicates inexistence of absolutes

Tolerance

A moral absolute… if it is the ground of relativism, relativism is self-referentially incoherent

The problem of specificity

If morality is relative, how could we decide what segment to society morality is relative to?

A reductio ad absurdum

If relativism is true, then moral progress is impossible

Another reductio

If relativism is true, then all moral reformers are immoral

A third reductio

If relativism is true, we could never say that the practices of other cultures are immoral

Some universal

There seem to be some ethical judgments that are universal. How can we account for this if morality is a cultural construct

Non-consequentialist theories

Ethical theories that evaluate the ethical status of actions based upon their conformity or nonconformity to some standard

Consequentialist

Ethical theories that evaluate the ethical status of actions based upon their consequences

Social contract theory

Morality is an implicit agreement between the members of a society that facilitates the functions of that society… attempt to explain where our ideas about right and wrong come from (Thomas Hobbs… picked up by Lock)

Ethical Realism

The view that moral goodness comes from a set of timeless rules that are set apart from society and God

Divine Command Theory

Something is right because God commands it and something is wrong because God opposes it

Divine Nature Theory

The theory that says what is good in ethics is a reflection of the inherent nature of God Himself

Look for direct statements, look for general principles from which we deduce conclusions, look for similar situations in the Bible from which we can reason to a conclusions

Three ways the Bible can be used to resolve ethical dilemmas

Direct statements, principles (duty ethics/Golden Rule, consequentialism and “fruit,” virtue ethics/character/WWJD), analogous situations, natural law

Philosophical metaethical theories that fit into this Christian metaethics

Philosophy of Religion

The rational analysis of the concepts, doctrines, and problematic issues found within religious belief systems

Apologetics

Reasoned arguments or writings in justification of something, typically a theory or religious doctrine

The ontological argument

God is “that than which nothing greater can be conceived” (St. Anselm of Canterbury)

The cosmological argument

There must be a beginning to the universe due to the first law of thermodynamics, but there couldn’t also be an infinite amount of history before the present day (Thomas Aquinas)

The teleological argument

The design theory argument (William Paley)

The moral argument

Universal morals point to a moral law giver, in other words, God (Kant, C.S. Lewis)

The prudential argument

It is more logically beneficial to believe in God (Blaise Pascal (Pascal’s Wager))

The argument from religious experience

Religious experience occurs in every part of the world. How can we best account for the universal appearance of this phenomenon? (John Hick)

The Resurrection of Christ

Jesus’ resurrection is a historical fact…

(Modus Ponens:

Resurrection > Supernatural God

Resurrection

:. Supernatural God)

The problem of evil

If God is omniscient, He would know about every evil event that occurs

If God is omnipotent, He would be able to prevent evil

If God is omnibenevolent, He would want to prevent evil

But God hasn’t prevented evil

Either lacks one of more of these qualities, or He doesn’t exist at all

Theoretical simplicity

How can a God exist eternally if matter does the same… matter has always been

Belief in God is not scientific

Science does not seem to be able to prove there’s a God, it can support the idea of it however

Ateleology

Argues from the lack of design from the world around us while teleology argues that there is a design to the world around us

The epistemological argument

This argument isn’t arguing God doesn’t exist, it’s arguing that we can’t have any knowledge about God (resurrection debate with Habermas)

Theodicy

Reason why it may be consistent for an omniscient, omnipotent, and omnibenevolent God to allow evil to exist

The “greater good” argument

Allowing evil can sometimes bring about a greater good. God allows specific instances of evil because He knows (although we cannot) that a greater good will result from them

The “Irenaean” theodicy

First pronounced by Irenaeus; more recently by John Hick. God does not create evil, but He allows evil to develop in order to try, strengthen, and purify us

The “free will defense”

Advocated by Augustine; more recently by Alvin Plantinga. In order for free will to exist, those possessing it must possess the ability to choose evil as well as good. God gave to humanity free will, but God did not cause our evil choices. Humans, not God, are responsible for the evil they choose to do

The “best possible world” arguments

Advocated by Leibniz. God could have created a world without evil, but it would be a world devoid of intercession, compassion, heroism, and mercy. God created a world in which both evil and triumph over evil are possible because this kind of world is better than the alternative

Anthropology

The theoretical study of human nature

Numerical identity

Something is identical because it is the same thing

Qualitative identity

Something is similar because it shares certain aspects or quality (personality based)

Qualitatively bodily identity

2 bodies are the same person if they are qualitatively identical

Qualitative mental identity

2 beings are the same person if they have the same thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and memories (same mental qualities)

Numerical bodily identity

2 beings are the same person if they are numerically identical (only one body)

Numerical mental identity

2 beings are the same person if they have numerically identical thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and memories

Bodily continuity

2 beings are the same person if they share the same body day after day

Mental continuity

2 beings are the same person if they share the same thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and memories at different times

Spiritual continuity

We are spirits, souls, or minds that inhabit bodies but aren’t identical to them… 2 beings in the same person only if they have spiritual continuity

Personal narrative

2 beings are the same person if their personal histories are numerically identical