BIOL 3000 Final Exam Review
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865 Terms
What do we use to improve our daily lives?
Human observations of animals and plants
What can be said as the beginning of all science?
Human observations
How does science affect society?
It can shape social and political ideas
How can society affect science?
Society can grow with science. It can tell us what we can or cannot do.
What is our human origin?
Mesopotamia
What is domestication?
When humans began to develop agriculture and selectively breed plants and animals for their useand adaptation to human needs.
What are some examples of domestication of animals?
Early gazelles were smaller than later, which could mean that we chose to breed the better ones.
Dogs were used for companionship, hunting, and labor.
Camels were very important for transportation and allowed humans to move to different areas.
Used animals for food and hide
What are some examples of domestication of plants?
Selectively bred certain plants for certain traits.
Areas around the rivers of the Fertile Crescent were very fertile, which made them a good place to grow crops.
How did society as a whole change during domestication?
Cities grew and quit being a hunting and gathering society.
There was much less work, so there was more time to think philosophically, scientifically, socially, etc.
Thought about the Theory of Heredity.
What is spontaneous generation?
Living structures form without descent from similar organisms; they just spontaneously appear.W
Why did people back then believe in spontaneous generation?
The sanitary conditions were poor, so they would just throw their bones and trash anywhere. For example, they threw their bones on the streets.
Bone → maggots → fliesThis led to the misconception that life could arise from decaying matter.
Has spontaneous generation only been used in a scientific sense?
No, many famous philosophers and religions have mentioned some form of spontaneous generation.
Ex: Aristotle, Shakespeare, and Christianity, Jean Babtist van Helmont
What did Jean Babtist van Helmont write?
A book on spontaneous generation and gave recipes for certain organisms
Ex: scorpions and rats
Who disproved spontaneous generation and how?
Louis Pasteur through the Swan Neck Experiment
How did the Swan Neck Experiment disprove spontaneous generation?
By demonstrating that microorganisms, not spontaneous generation, were responsible for growth of organisms.
What is Preformationism?
The concept that an organism develops from a miniature version of themselves.
What did William Harvey believe?
That all animals come from eggs; he was an ovalist.W
What did Malebranche believe?
He believed that all life began at the moment of Creation and that we were like Russian Nesting Dolls.
What did Antoine van Leeuwenhoek believe?
That there was a tiny dude in sperm. He was a spermist.
What is Pangenesis?
The theory is that body cells and structures shed small pieces of themselves which collect in the reproductive organs before fertilization. Each different organ in the body would form; kind of like seeds.
What are gemmules?
Throughout an individual’s life, each organ in the body produces small particles that contain information about the organ, how it is used, what it looks like, etc.
Who did not like the idea of Pangenesis.. even though he came up with it? Why?
Charles Darwin because it followed blended inheritance which is the direct opposite of Darwin’s Theories of Evolution (natural selection)
What two ideas does Pangenesis follow?
Blended inheritance and acquired characteristics
What is blended inheritance?
Inherited traits are determined randomly from a range defined by the two parents.
What are acquired characteristics?
An organism can pass characteristics it has acquired throughout its lifetime along to its offspring.
Who came up with acquired characteristics?
Lamarck, it is also known as Lamarckism
Why was Lamarckism a popular belief during the 1800s?
During that time, a lot of businesses were family-run and generational. Meaning that if a dad was a tailor, then the son would most likely be a tailor and taught the trade.
A blacksmith has one big arm → Has a son, and his son has one big arm → His grandson has one big arm
What two ideas does acquired characteristics incorporate?
Acquired traits are heritable and use v.s. disuse
What is the difference between Darwin and Lamarck?
Darwin believed that organisms are all different and that those that happen to have variations that help them to survive in their environments survive and have more offspring.
Lamarck believed that if an organism changes during life in order to adapt to its environment, those changes are passed on to its offspring.
Who disproved Lamarckism and how?
August Weismann through the Rat Tail Mutilation Experiments
What idea did the Rat Tail Mutilation Experiment evaluate?
Use v.s. Disuse
Summarize the Rat Tail Mutilation Experiment
Performed by Weismann; he cut off the tails of rats and mated them over multiple generations. All the offspring would have long tails. Disproving Lamarckism and how rats need their tails and use them.
What is Epigenesis?
The theory is that the embryo is not pre-formed in the ovum or the sperm, but that it develops gradually by the successive formation of new parts from information passed down.
What can determine genetic activity after 8 weeks in utero?
Environmental factors
Who began what we define as genetics?
Mendel
What did Mendel refer to genes as before Johannson?
Particles of inheritance
Who coined the word “gene”?
Wilhelm Johannson
What is a gene?
The raw material of heritability, and it was coined in direct contrast to the idea of the pangene.W
What is genetics?
A branch of biology dealing with heredity and the expression of inherited traits.
What is heredity?
The transmission of traits from one generation to the next
Why is learning about heritability important?
Learning heritability will allow us to understand and possibly cure or modify over 10,000 known genetic disorders. We can examine modes of inheritance even at the DNA level, analyze and determine what might be passed to the next generation, and develop genetic testing and genetic therapies to combat disease.W
What is expression?
Once you get genetic material, how do you convert that into a phenotypic characterWha
What is the central dogma?
DNA → RNA → ProteinW
Why do we study gene expression?
Differences in gene expression can correlate with drug response or disease risk. The changes at the DNA level of coding protein can affect how the protein is produced or how it works. Changing protein expression levels, whether the protein is “on” or “off” can also influence biological processes just as effectively
Genes are the instruction or recipe books for making what?
Proteins
What is life? According to the dictionary
The ability to grow, change, etc. that separates plants and animals from things like water or rocks
To grow is to what?
Reproduce
To consume is to what?
Eat
What are living things able to do with nourishment?
They can change nutrition into something else like metabolites.
A computer virus can do all the things defined by life, does that mean it is alive?
No, it is not alive
What is life? According to science
Organisms that are complex, have the ability to grow and change, adapt, and respond to stimuli
What is complexity of life?
Living organisms tend to be complex, they are not simple
What is the ability to grow and change?
The ability to take energy from the environment and transform it for growth
What is the ability to adapt?
Living organisms tend toward equilibrium with their environment
What is the ability to respond to stimuli?
The ability to react to the changes of an environment
Ex: It’s cold, so we put on a coat
Crystals have all the characteristics of life (scientifically), so are they alive?
No, they are not
What is the one thing that helps us get rid of the “fuzzy” definition of life?
There has to be a biological requirement. Some carbon-based life form must exist.
What are macromolecules of life?
They are found in ALL living organisms and are the building blocks of all cells
What are macromolecules comprised of?
A combination of six elements
What are the six elements that constitute life?
Carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, oxygen, hydrogen, and sulfur
(C H O N P S)
What are the four macromolecules of life?
Carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins
What is every cell composed of?
The four macromolecules of life
What are carbohydrates?
Their basic unit is called sugar. They’re made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
What is the role of carbohydrates?
They provide energy and support and structure to the cell
What are lipids?
Their basic unit is called fatty acid. They’re made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (and phosphorous).
What is the role of lipids?
They provide energy, structure, and cushioning to the cell. They also prevent the loss of heat through a method of insulation.
Why do some lipids have phosphorous? Are they considered an actual lipid?
Phospholipids are a modification of lipids. Phosphates can be added as a post-modification, and they are not considered an actual lipid.
What are nucleic acids?
Their basic unit is called nucleotides. There are two types of DNA and RNA. They’re made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorous.
What is the role of nucleic acids?
They direct and control ALL activities of the cell
What is the base of DNA/RNA made of?
Nitrogen, it is a nitrogenous base
What are proteins?
Their basic unit is called amino acids. They’re made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur.
What are the roles of proteins?
They provide a vast array of functions in the cell including metabolism, transport, and stimulus response.
Why do proteins have sulfur?
It helps hold the proteins together.
What is located inside the nucleus and a very small amount in the mitochondria?
Nucleic acids
Do we know what came first, the protein or DNA?
We do not know; it is a constant debate.
What did Antoine Fourcroy do?
Recognize a distinct class of macromolecules.
What did Johannes Mulder do?
Described the first protein through elemental analysis, and recognized phosphorous as a central element of macromolecules.
What did Freidrich Meischer do?
Identified DNA inside the nuclei and coined it nuclein
What did Albrecht Kossel do?
Isolated the five nucleobases from the nuclein (nucleic acid)
What did Phoebus Levene do?
Identify the three major components of a nucleotide
What did Frederick Griffith do?
Commissioned by the Medical Society in London, he described the transforming principle by isolating pneumococcus bacteria. He was helping discover what was heritable.
Summarize the Griffith Experiment
He isolated pneumococcus bacteria, used rough and smooth strains, injected them into mice, and observed whether the mouse died or survived.
Just rough strain → Mouse lived
Just smooth strain → Mouse died
Just heat-killed smooth strain → Mouse lived
Rough strain and Heat-killed smooth strain → Mouse died
Explain why the mouse died in the Griffith Experiment even though it was injected with the rough strain and heat-killed smooth strain?
The rough strain took the information from the heat-killed smooth strain and created the smooth strain. The rough strain “copied” the heat-killed smooth strain information. In short, transformation occurred.
During the time of the Griffith Experiment (1928), what did people believe about heritable material?
They couldn’t rationalize that the five nucleobases were the heritable material. They wanted to believe that it was proteins or something more “complicated.”
What was the conclusion of the Griffith Experiment?
He described a transforming principle which means that bacteria can transfer genetic information through transformation.
What did Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty do?
They redid Griffith’s experiment with a little more specificity and technology. They were determining if DNA was the hereditary material.
Summarize Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty’s Experiment
They removed lipids and carbs from a solution of heat-killed smooth cells.
They subjected the solution to enzymes that destroy either DNA, RNA, or protein
Added samples to rough cultures and observed the transformation.
Vial 1: Added proteinase, the sample should contain no protein → Transformation occurred
Vial 2: Added ribonuclease, the sample should contain no RNA → Transformation occurred
Vial 3: Added deoxyribonuclease, the sample should contain no DNA → No transformation occurred
What was the conclusion of the Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty Experiment?
Transformation cannot occur unless DNA is present; therefore, DNA is the material of heredity
How do you know what an enzyme eats and destroys?
Enzymes typically have -ase at the end, and the front is what they eat up.
What did Hershey and Chase do?
They asked the same question of whether DNA was the material of heredity by using bacteriophages.
Summarize Hershey and Chase’s Experiment
They used two bacteriophages, one with Sulfur-35 and the other with Phosphorus-32. These were both radioactive. The phages then infected the bacteria, and they measured whether the cell presented radioactivity or not.
S-35
The protein coats of phages are radioactively labeled.
Phages infect bacteria with genetic material.
No radioactivity enters the cell.
P-32
DNA of phages is radioactively labeled
Phages infect bacteria with genetic material
Radioactivity enters the cell.
What was the conclusion of the Hershey and Chase experiment?
It confirmed that DNA, not protein, was in fact the source of genetic material.
How did the Hershey and Chase experiment confirm that protein was not the source of genetic material?
The use of sulfur and phosphorous was purposeful because protein was the only macromolecule that contained sulfur, and DNA was the only one that contained phosphorous. Therefore, if the cells infected with S-35 had no radioactivity, then they knew that proteins could not be the source of genetic material.
In what ways has the confirmation of DNA being the source of heredity material influenced our society?
It has allowed us to explore and advance through biotechnology, ex, DNA libraries, and restriction enzymes. Pharmaceuticals like insulin, human growth hormone (HGH), and hepatitis B vaccine. And diagnostics like the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and disease detection (HIV, Lyme disease, Cystic Fibrosis, etc.). And agriculturally like GMOs.
What did Phoebus Levene do?
Differentiated between DNA and RNA and identified the three major components of a nucleotide (phosphate, sugar, base)
What are the “puzzle pieces” of building DNA?
DNA’s components
DNA' is the molecule of heredity
Base positions
Base ratios
Crystal structure
Overall shape
Attracts water molecules
Phosphate placement
Symmetry
Bases per twist
Diameter
Shape of the bases
What is the Tetranucleotide Hypothesis?
The idea prompted by Levene that DNA contained all four nucleotides fit in a little circle. The phosphates pointed in, and the sugars pointed out. Any strand of a nucleic acid would have 25% of A, T, C, G.
During 1940-1950s, what were scientists able to do with chromosomes?
They were able to visualize them.
What was the first puzzle piece of understanding DNA?
DNA’s components
What was the second puzzle piece of understanding DNA?
DNA is the molecule of heredity