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accent
the ways in which words are pronounced. Accent can vary according to the region or social classes of a speaker.
adjacency pairs
parallel expressions used across the boundaries of individual speaking turns. They are usually ritualistic and formulaic socially.
examples of adjacency pairs
“how are you?” “fine thanks”
back-channel
words, phrases and non-verbal utterances used by a listener to give feedback to a speaker that the message is being followed and understood.
examples of back-channels
“I see”, “oh”, “uh huh”, “really”
contraction
a reduced form often marked by an apostrophe in writing.
examples of contractions
can’t= cannot, she’ll= she will
deixis/ deitics
words such as “this”, “that”, “here” which refer backwards or forwards or outside of a text- a sort of verbal pointing.
dialect
the distinctive grammar and vocabulary which is associated with a regional or social use of language.
discourse marker
words and phrases which are used to signal the relationship and connections between utterances and to signpost that what is said can be followed by the listener or the reader.
examples of discourse markers
first, on the other hand, now, what’s more, so anyway
elision
the omission or slurring of one or more sounds or syllables e.g: “gonna”= going to
ellipsis
the omission of part of a grammatical structure E.g- “you going to the party?”/ “might be”- the verb “are” and the pronoun “I” are missed out. The resulting ellipsis conveys a more casual and informal tone
false start
this is when the speaker begins an utterance, then stops and either repeats or reformulates it
filler
items which do not carry conventional meaning but which are inserted in speech to allow time to think, to create a pause or to hold a turn in conversation.
examples of filler
er, um,ah
grices maxisms
grice proposed four basic conversational rules for a great conversation.
quantity
don’t say too much or too little
relevance
keep to the point
manner
speak in a clear and orderly way
quality
be truthful
hedge
words and phrases which soften or weaken the force with which something is said
idiolect
an individually distinctive style of speaking
interactional talk
language in conversation used for interpersonal reasons
Non-fluency features
typical and normal characteristics of spoken language that interrupt the “flow” of the talk.
example of non-fluency features
hesitations, false starts, fillers, repetitions, overlaps and interrruptions
paralinguistic features
related to body language, it can be used for gestures, facial expressions and other non-verbal elements (laughter) to add meaning to the speakers message beyond the words being spoken
phatic talk
conversational utterances that have no concrete purpose other than to establish or maintain personal relationships. It is related to small talks- and follows traditional patterns, with stock responses and formulaic expressions
pragmatics
the meaning of words
prosodic features
includes features such as stress, rhythm, pitch, tempo and intonation- which are used by speakers to mark out key meanings in a message. How something is said
repairs
an alteration that is suggested or made by a speaker, the addressee, or audience in order to correct or clarify a previous conversational contribution
sociolect
a social dialect or variety of speech used by a particular group, such as working class or upper class speech
tag question
strings of words normally added to a declarative sentence to turn the statement into a question
examples of tag questions
“it’s a bit expensive around here, isn’t it?”
transactional talk
language to get things done or to transmit content or information (used when the participants are exchanging goods and/ or services)
turn taking
a turn is a time during which a single participant speaks, within a typical, orderly arrangement in which participants speak with minimal overlap and gap between them
utterance
an utterance is a complete unit of talk, bounded by the speaker’s silence
vague language
statements that sound imprecise and unassertive
example of vague language
“and so on”, “or whatever”, “whatsit”