AP Psych Unit 1

Nature

Genetic or predisposed characteristics that influence physical, behavioral, and mental traits and processes.

Nurture

External factors that one experiences, such as family interactions or education.

Evolutionary Perspective

Explores how natural selection affects the expression of behavior and mental processes to increase survival and reproductive success.

Phrenology

Belief that bumps on the skull can explain underlying functions of the brain.

Central Nervous System

Includes the brain and the spinal cord and interacts with all processes in the body.

Peripheral Nervous System

Relays messages from the central nervous system to the rest of the body and includes the autonomic and somatic nervous systems.

Autonomic Nervous System

Governs processes that are involuntary and includes the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems.

Somatic Nervous System

Governs processes that are voluntary and enables sensations.

Parasympathetic Division

Part of the autonomic nervous system that conserves energy and promotes "rest and digest" functions, slowing heart rate and increasing digestion. Maintains homeostasis.

Sympathetic Division

Part of the autonomic nervous system responsible for the "fight or flight" response, increasing heart rate, and energy production in response to stress or danger.

Interneurons

Neurons that intervene between sensory inputs and motor outputs. Within the spinal cord.

Gate Control Theory

Belief that there is something within our brain stem that decides if pain makes it to the brain.

Cell Body

Provides the energy to power neural transmission that will engage action potential (firing of neuron).

Dendrite

Area of the neuron that receives the messages and conducts impulses toward the cell body.

Axon

Neural extension that sends messages from dendrites to axon.

Myelin Sheath

Protective coating of axon that aides in the speeding up of neural transmission. Connects to Multiple Sclerosis.

Glial Cells

Cells that provide structure, insulation, communication, and waste transport. Also known as Schwann Cells, create the myelin.

Node of Ranvier

Interruptions along the axon that allow for easier ionic exchange to aide in action potential.

Axon Terminal

Button-like ending of axon that meets up with the synapse.

Synapse

Junction between axon and next dendrite.

Spinal Cord Reflex Arc

Demonstrates how neurons within the central and peripheral nervous systems work together to respond to stimuli.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that relay signals between neurons, with each one having specific functions depending on its location and the type of message.

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Increase the likelihood that the receiving neuron will fire an action potential.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Decrease the likelihood of the receiving neuron firing.

Psychoactive Drugs

Alter neurotransmitter functions at various points in the neural communication process.

Agonists

Mimic or enhance a neurotransmitter's effects, encouraging neural firing. Examples include opioids.

Antagonists

Block a neurotransmitters effects, discouraging neural firing. Examples include caffeine.

Acetylcholine

Involved in muscle movement, memory, and learning. An undersupply can lead to paralysis while an oversupply can lead to violent muscle contractions.

Dopamine

Plays a key role in pleasure, motivation, and reward, as well as in regulating movement. An undersupply can lead to Parkinson's Disease while an oversupply can lead to Schizophrenia.

Serotonin

Helps regulate mood, appetite, sleep, and emotional well-being. An undersupply can lead to depression while an oversupply can lead to OCD.

Norepinephrine

Involved in the body's stress response, affecting alertness, arousal, and the fight-or-flight reaction. An undersupply can lead to Bipolar Disorder while an oversupply can lead to high blood pressure.

GABA

Inhibits nerve activity in the brain, helping to calm and reduce anxiety. An undersupply can lead to insomnia and seizures while an oversupply can lead to sleep/eating disorders.

Glutamate

The most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, involved in learning and memory. An oversupply can lead to overstimulation of the brain. Connects with MSG.

Endorphins

Act as natural painkillers and help to reduce stress and promote a feeling of well-being. An oversupply can lead to inadequate pain warnings while an undersupply leads to intense pain.

Substance P

Transmits pain signals and is involved in the body's response to injury. Abnormal levels can lead to Major Depressive Disorder and PTSD.

Resting Potential

Neuron is in a settled manner but has become aware of surroundings. Small charges are apparent.

Action Potential

The energy of the nucleus allows for the message to be fired down the axon. Threshold of excitation and far beyond.

Reuptake

Travelers on stand-by, neurotransmitters in synapse recycled for possible later use by previous (pre-synaptic neuron).

Absolute Refractory Period

After firing, no chance of a refire until regrouped or at proper voltage.

Relative Refractory Period

Earliest moment after firing when a neuron may fire again though not entirely regrouped or back to Resting State.

Brain Stem

Controls basic functioning such as breathing and heart rate.

Reticular Activating System

Control some voluntary movement, eye movement, and some types of learning, cognition, and emotion.

Cerebellum

Controls coordination of muscle movement, balance, and some forms of procedural learning.

Cerebral Cortex

Divided into two hemispheres and includes the limbic system (thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, hippocampus, amygdala), corpus callosum, and the lobes of the cortex.

Occipital Lobes

Control visual information processing and are located in the rear of the brain.

Temporal Lobes

Control auditory and linguistic processing and are located on the sides of the brain.

Parietal Lobe

Control association areas, which process and organize information, and the somatosensory cortex, which processes touch sensitivity. These lobes are located near the back crown of the brain.

Frontal Lobes

Control linguistic processing, higher-order thinking, and executive functioning, especially in the prefrontal cortex.

Brain Plasticity

Ability of the brain to rewire itself or modify or create new connections throughout development. Allows for the function of a damaged part of the brain to be assumed by a different part.

Motor Strip

Motor Neuron Headquarters - Whatever the brain wants to send to the body must go through this location.

Sensory Strip

Sensory Neuron Headquarters - Whatever the body wants to send to the brain must go through this location.

Thalamus

Switchboard of the Brain, not part of limbic system. It diagnoses all of our senses and sends to appropriate lobes for processing. Connects with imagination & abstract thought.

Hypothalamus

An area of the brain that produces hormones that control: Body temperature. Heart rate. Hunger. Mood.

Amygdala

A small, almond-shaped structure in the brain that plays a key role in processing emotions, motivation, and memory

Hippocampus

Warehouse for the transfer of short term/working memory into long term memory. Transfers learning into stored memory.

Pons

Regulates autonomic processes while asleep. Manages your self-awareness and facial expressions. Connected to sleeping and dreaming.

Medulla

The lowest part of the brainstem and connects the spinal cord to the brain. Regulates key body functions such as breathing/heartrate & blood pressure.

Reticular Formation

Sends impulses to cerebrum to keep it conscious and alert. If damaged, it can cause one to go into a coma.

Broca's Area

Region in the brain associated with speech production. Involved in language comprehension, in motor-related activities associated with hand movements, and in sensorimotor learning and integration

Wernicke's Area

Area of the brain that processes language. Involved in transforming visual impressions of letters into mental representations of speech sounds.

Endocrine System

A network of glands and organs that produce hormones that regulate many bodily functions. Releases hormones into the bloodstream.

Pituitary Gland

Located on the underside of the brain, below limbic system. Often works with the Hypothalamus. Specifically affects thirst, sexual behavior, paternal/maternal behavior.

EEG

Produces amplified tracings of waves of electrical brain activity. Records electrical activity of the brain. Widely used in sleep research.

CT/CAT

A sophisticated x-ray; uses several x-ray cameras to rotate around the brain and form a detailed 3D picture of brain structure. Can only show the structure of the brain. Able to detect tumors.

MRI

Uses magnetic fields and radio waves to make computer-generated images; producing visual slices of the brain. Provides a detailed picture of brain structure. Measures density of brain material.

PET

Produces visual display of brain activity. Computer translates signals into a map of the brain at work. Enables researchers to see what areas of the brain are most active during certain tasks.

fMRI

Combines elements of MRI and PET scans. Shows details of brain structure with info about blood flow in the brain, linking brain structure with brain activity during cognitive tasks.

Stimulant

Increase in the brain activity and alertness, raise energy levels, speed-up body systems and elevate mood.

Depressant

Decrease brain activity and alertness, reduces excitability, depresses arousal levels, relaxes body systems.

Hallucinogen

Can cause altered states of consciousness, such as changes in thought, mood, and perception. They are not classified as a true stimulant or depressant as they have distinct effects.

Myopia

Temporary short sightedness due to use of a psychoactive drug, commonly alcohol.

NREM 1

Eyes closed, slow rolling of eyes. Average of 5-10 minutes. Theta waves are present. Transitional stage where one is easily awakened. Time of hypnogogic experiences, or dream-like sensations.

NREM 2

Around half your night, stilly easily awoken, transitional stage 2. Far less aware of surroundings. Going from theta waves in light sleep to delta waves in deep sleep.

NREM 3 & 4

Slow wave sleep, delta waves, very relaxed. Slow and regular heart rate. Can fall back asleep easily. Associated with growth and development for children.

REM Sleep

Rapid-eye movement sleep. Considered paradoxical because it produces waves similar to wakefulness, but the body is at its most relaxed. Dreaming typically occurs during REM sleep.

Sleep Spindles

High frequency but low amplitude waves. Shown during NREM2 and often connect to muscle twitching.

K-Complexes

Low frequency but high amplitude waves. Bursts of brain activity at lower frequency, usually caused by outside stimulation.

Activation-Synthesis Theory

Proposes that dreams result from the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity during REM sleep.

Consolidation Theory

Suggests that dreams play a role in the consolidation and processing of memories. Suggests that dreaming helps strengthen and integrate new information into existing memory networks.

Memory Consolidation Theory

Suggests that sleep, particularly slow-wave sleep and REM sleep, is crucial for the stabilization and strengthening of newly acquired memories.

Restoration Theory

Proposes that sleep serves to replenish and restore cognitive resources depleted during wakefulness.

Wish Fulfillment Theory

Concept that describes how unconscious desires are met through involuntary thought processes, such as dreams and daydreams

Manifest Content

The actual storyline of events, the part of a dream that a person remembers after waking up.

Latent Content

The underlying meaning of a dream usually remembered later in life.

Insomnia

Characterized by persistent difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or obtaining restful sleep, leading to daytime fatigue and impaired functioning.

Narcolepsy

Neurological disorder marked by excessive daytime sleepiness and sudden, irresistible sleep attacks.

REM Sleep Behavior Disorder

Involves the loss of muscle atonia during REM sleep, causing individuals to physically act out their dream, which can be potentially dangerous.

Sleep Apnea

Condition where breathing repeatedly stops and starts during sleep, leading to fragmented sleep and decreased oxygen levels.

Somnambulism

Also known as sleepwalking, involves engaging in complex behaviors while in a state of deep sleep, with no conscious awareness or memory of the event.

Sensation

The process of detecting and encoding environmental stimuli. It involves our sensory systems working together to capture information.

Absolute Threshold

The lowest level of a stimulus that a person can detect 50% of the time.

Just-Noticeable Difference

The smallest change in a stimulus that can be detected 50% of the time.

Weber's Law

Describes the degree stimuli need to differ for the difference to be detected.

Synesthesia

A phenomenon that causes sensory crossovers, such as tasting colors or feeling sounds

Rods

Cells that lie in the periphery of the eye and detect shapes and movement, but not color. Mainly activated in low-light environments. Play a role in light and dark adaptation.

Cones

Specialized nerves that convert light into neural impulses. They are responsible for color vision and are concentrated in the fovea, the central area of the retina.

Trichromatic Theory

Explains color vision through three types of cones in the fovea processing color and detail. Blue cones detect short wavelengths, green detects medium, and red detects long wavelengths.

Opponent-Processing Theory

Adds to trichromatic theory by considering that yellow and blue cones back each other up, as green/red and black/white do. These pairs have complementary after images.

Prosopagnosia

Inability to recognize faces.

Blindsight

Ability to respond to visual stimuli without consciously perceiving them.