History Exams

Silk Road/Trade Routes

A network of trade routes connecting the East and West, facilitating commerce and cultural exchange from ancient times through the Middle Ages.

Markets

Physical or virtual places where goods and services are bought and sold.

Trade Fairs

Events where vendors and buyers come together to trade goods, often featuring a variety of merchants and products.

Just Price

The concept that prices should reflect fair value based on the cost of production and the needs of the community.

Usury

The practice of charging excessively high interest rates on loans.

Banca/Banks

Institutions that accept deposits, provide loans, and offer financial services.

Freemen/Towns

Individuals who are not serfs or slaves and have the right to own property and make legal decisions; towns were centers of trade and governance.

Apprentice

A person who is learning a trade or craft from a skilled employer, often through a long-term training period.

Journeyman

A trained worker who has completed an apprenticeship and is qualified to work in a specific trade, but is not yet a master.

Master

A skilled artisan or tradesman who has completed their training and is authorized to train apprentices.

Middle Class

A social class between the upper and working classes, often characterized by professionals and business owners.

Self-Government

The ability of a community or group to govern itself without external control.

Nobles Weakened

The decline of the power and influence of the noble class in medieval society.

Filthy Conditions

Poor living and working environments, often associated with overcrowding and lack of sanitation.

Trivium

The lower division of the seven liberal arts, consisting of grammar, rhetoric, and logic.

Quadrivium

The upper division of the seven liberal arts, consisting of arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy.

Universitas

An institution of higher learning that granted degrees and had a degree of autonomy.

Bologna

A city in Italy known for its ancient university, which became a model for universities in Europe.

Paris

A major center of learning and culture in medieval Europe, home to one of the earliest universities.

Vernacular

The language or dialect spoken by the ordinary people in a particular region.

Dante/Divine Comedy

An epic poem by Dante Alighieri that describes the journey of the soul through the realms of the afterlife.

Chaucer/Canterbury Tales

A collection of stories written by Geoffrey Chaucer, depicting a variety of characters on a pilgrimage to Canterbury.

Romanesque Architecture

A style of architecture characterized by semi-circular arches and thick walls, prominent in medieval Europe.

Gothic Architecture

A style of architecture characterized by pointed arches, ribbed vaults, and flying buttresses, developed in the high and late medieval periods.

Notre Dame

A famous cathedral in Paris, known for its Gothic architecture.

Kings vs. Popes

The historical conflict between secular rulers and the papacy over authority and power.

Innocent III (Powerful)

A pope who significantly expanded the influence of the papacy and asserted its authority over secular rulers.

Papal Weapons

The methods used by the papacy to exert power, including excommunication, interdiction, and political alliances.

Excommunication

The act of officially excluding someone from participation in the sacraments and services of the Christian Church.

Interdiction

A church decree prohibiting certain sacraments or religious services in a particular area, often used as a tool of political leverage.

Inquisition

A church-led investigation aimed at rooting out heresy, often through trials and severe punishment.

Crusades

Military campaigns sanctioned by the Church aimed at reclaiming the Holy Land from Muslim control.

National Pride

A sense of pride in one's nation that often influenced conflicts and political movements.

Boniface VIII

A pope known for his conflicts with secular powers and the issuance of the papal bull Unam Sanctam.

Unam Sanctam

A papal bull asserting the supremacy of the pope over all temporal rulers.

Babylonian Captivity

The period during which the papacy resided in Avignon rather than Rome.

Great Schism

The division of the Christian Church into Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic branches, and later the split within the Catholic Church itself.

Nation-States

Political entities characterized by a defined territory, a permanent population, and a centralized government.

Common Law

A legal system based on custom and judicial precedent rather than written laws.

Thomas a Becket

The archbishop of Canterbury who opposed King Henry II and was murdered as a result of their conflict.

Magna Carta (1215)

A charter that limited the powers of the king and established certain legal rights for nobles and, eventually, common citizens.

English Parliament

The legislative body of the United Kingdom, evolving from the medieval council of nobles.

Taxation (Philip IV-France)

The imposition of taxes by King Philip IV of France, leading to tensions with the nobility and clergy.

Estates-General

A legislative assembly in France representing the three estates: clergy, nobility, and commoners.

Hundred Years' War

A prolonged conflict between England and France over territorial disputes and claims to the French throne.

Longbows

A powerful type of bow used by English archers, playing a significant role in battles during the Hundred Years' War.

Nationalism/Joan of Arc

A sense of national pride and identity that was personified by Joan of Arc, who led French forces during the Hundred Years' War.

War of the Roses

A series of civil wars in England between the houses of York and Lancaster over control of the throne.

York vs. Lancaster

The rival factions in the War of the Roses, symbolizing the struggle for power among English nobles.

Henry VII/Tudor Dynasty

The first monarch of the Tudor dynasty, whose reign marked the end of the War of the Roses and the beginning of a period of relative stability.

Moors/Reconquista

The Muslim inhabitants of the Iberian Peninsula and the Christian campaign to reclaim that territory from them, culminating in 1492.

Ferdinand/Isabella

The Catholic Monarchs of Spain who completed the Reconquista and sponsored Columbus's voyage to the New World.

Renaissance ("Rebirth")

A cultural movement characterized by a revival of interest in classical art, literature, and learning, originating in Italy.

Zest for Living

A renewed enthusiasm for life and human experience during the Renaissance, emphasizing individual achievement.

Light vs. Dark

A metaphor contrasting the enlightenment of the Renaissance with the perceived ignorance of the Middle Ages.

Humanism

A Renaissance intellectual movement focused on human potential and achievements, emphasizing classical texts and education.

Revival of Learning

The renewed interest in classical knowledge, including literature, philosophy, and sciences during the Renaissance.

Humanities/Liberal Arts

Academic disciplines that study human culture, including literature, philosophy, and history.

Well-Rounded Individuals

The Renaissance ideal of a person educated in multiple fields, embodying the concept of a 'Renaissance man.'

Admired Greece & Rome

The Renaissance focus on the art, literature, and philosophy of ancient Greece and Rome.

Began in Italy (Florence)

The Renaissance began in Florence, Italy, due to its wealth, trade, and cultural environment.

Era of New Art

The period marked by innovative artistic techniques and styles, leading to masterpieces in painting, sculpture, and architecture.

Portraits

Artistic representations of individuals, emphasizing realism and individualism during the Renaissance.

Sculptures

Three-dimensional artworks that became prominent during the Renaissance, showcasing human beauty and anatomy.

Perspective

A technique used in art to create the illusion of depth and space on a flat surface.

Consequences of Renaissance

The societal, cultural, and intellectual changes resulting from the Renaissance, including shifts in art, politics, and religion.

Positives vs. Negatives

A comparison of the beneficial outcomes of the Renaissance (like advancements in art and science) versus its potential downsides (such as social stratification).

Lorenzo de Medici

An influential patron of the arts in Florence, known for supporting artists and scholars.

Niccolo Machiavelli

A political philosopher known for his work 'The Prince,' which discusses political power and ethics.

William Shakespeare

A renowned playwright and poet whose works have had a lasting impact on English literature.

Sandro Botticelli

An Italian painter known for his works depicting mythological themes and beauty.

Leonardo da Vinci

A polymath known for his contributions to art, science, and engineering, famous for masterpieces like the 'Mona Lisa.'

Raphael

An artist noted for his paintings and architectural designs, especially his frescoes in the Vatican.

Michelangelo

A sculptor, painter, and architect known for works such as the Sistine Chapel ceiling and the statue of David.

Titian

A prominent Venetian painter known for his use of color and innovative techniques in portraiture and landscapes.

Ninety-Five Theses

A document by Martin Luther criticizing the Catholic Church's practices, particularly the sale of indulgences.

Indulgences

Payments made to the Church to reduce punishment for sins, which sparked criticism during the Reformation.

Leipzig Debate

A public debate in 1520 between Martin Luther and Johann Eck, highlighting the divide between Protestantism and Catholicism.

Diet of Worms

An assembly in 1521 where Martin Luther was asked to recant his writings, leading to his excommunication.

Sola Scriptura

The doctrine that scripture alone is authoritative for Christian faith and practice.

Sola Christus

The belief that Christ is the sole mediator between God and humanity.

Sola Fide

The doctrine that faith alone is sufficient for salvation.

Sola Gratia

The belief that grace alone, not merit, is the basis for salvation.

Soli Deo Gloria

The principle that all glory is due to God alone.

Peace of Augsburg

A treaty in 1555 that allowed for the coexistence of Catholicism and Lutheranism in the Holy Roman Empire.

Church of England/Anglican

The national church of England, formed by Henry VIII's break from the Roman Catholic Church.

Puritans

A religious group seeking to purify the Church of England of Catholic practices.

Separatists

Groups that broke away from the Church of England to form their independent congregations.

Huguenots

French Protestants influenced by Calvinism who faced persecution in Catholic France.

Edict of Nantes

A 1598 decree granting religious tolerance to Huguenots in France.

Johannes Gutenberg

Inventor of the printing press, which revolutionized the spread of information and literature.

John Wycliffe

An early reformer who advocated for translating the Bible into vernacular languages.

John Huss (Jan Hus)

A Czech reformer who criticized the Church and was executed for heresy.

Martin Luther

The key figure in the Protestant Reformation, known for his critique of the Catholic Church and the establishment of Lutheranism.

Philip Melanchthon

A collaborator of Luther and a key figure in the development of Lutheran theology.

John Calvin

A theologian who developed Calvinism, emphasizing predestination and the sovereignty of God.

Henry VIII

The English king who initiated the English Reformation by breaking away from the Catholic Church.

Mary I ("Bloody Mary")

The daughter of Henry VIII who attempted to restore Catholicism in England and persecuted Protestants.

Elizabeth I

The daughter of Henry VIII who established the Protestant Church of England and is known for her long and stable reign.

Catherine de Medici

The queen consort of Henry II of France, who played a significant role in the politics of the French Wars of Religion.