Paper 3, Language Change - Language Change Theorist Flashcards

Halliday’s Functional Language Theory

Theory that proposes that language changes according to the needs of its users and this leads to lexical change. Both the context of culture and context of the situation are important

Context of situation register variables

Field, Tenor, Mode

Field

Gives an indication of the topic or what is being talked about

Tenor

Gives an indication of who is involved in the communication and the relationships between them

Mode

Gives an indication of what part the language is playing in the interaction and what form it takes (written or spoken)

Hockett’s Random Fluctuation Theory

Random errors and events, as a result of ever-changing contextual factors, lead to language changing, e.g. ‘goodbye’ originally came from the contraction ‘god b w ye’ being misread

Substratum Theory

Suggests that language changes through contact with other languages or dialects that influence the structure or vocabulary of a language, often seen in instances of colonization or migration. However it does imply that one language is ‘lesser’ than the other

Cultural transmission theory

Proposes that language is learned and passed on through social interaction and cultural practices, highlighting the importance of community in language development.

Horizontal transmission

The process whereby language is acquired from peers of the same generation.

Vertical transmission

The process whereby language is passed down from a member of one generation to a biologically related member of a later generation.

Oblique transmission

The process whereby language is passed down from a member of one generation to a non-biologically related member of a later generation.

Community preservation (cultural transmission theory)

Cultural transmission helps to establish and preserve communities by linking individuals into communities of shared identity, characteristics shared by communities distinguish them from other communities

Language change (cultural transmission theory)

Language change takes place when individuals and groups perceive a benefit in change, this may be for status, such as a change of accent to fit in with a group or to gain material benefit, such as a higher paying job

Theory of Lexical gaps

A linguistic theory that addresses the need for certain words to come into existence to fill a noticeable gap, stems from Halliday’s Functional Language Theory.

Lexical Gap

A space in language for a particular word which does not yet exist, but fits existing patterns of grammar and syntax

Semantic gap

A phenomenon where a conceptual distinction does not have a corresponding term within a language, often leading to a lack of expression for certain ideas., e.g. there is a word for a child who has lost their parents (‘orphan’) but no word for a parent that has lost their child

Morphological gap

A situation in language where a particular morphological structure or form is absent, although it is expected to exist based on existing grammatical rules, this may lead to the word coming into existence regardless

Tree model of language change

A model that suggests that languages change only by splitting from a common core and can be grouped in the same way as a family tree, as each language can be traced back to an earlier parent one

Challenge to the tree model of language change

Challenged by the process of pidgin and creole languages where a mix of languages create a new language rather than a new language splitting from its common parent language

Wave model of language change

A model that states that new aspects of language or new combinations of language features are initiated in one place at one time and spread outwards from that point in progressive stages. Different innovations move at different rates in different directions so that the areas covered by different innovations do not coincide.

Range in wave model of language change

The epicenter of the change is the area of maximum effectiveness and as the changes spread they act like waves, becoming less effective and dissipating at maximum time and distance from the center.

Languages in wave model of language change

Languages are to be regarded as impermanent sets of speech habits that result from and stay prevalent in the intersection of innovations.

Pressures from above/ Conscious Change (Aitchinson)

Changes which people realise are happening and actively encourage

Pressures from below / Unconscious changes (Aitchinson)

When changes spread without awareness

The Infectious Disease Model (Aitchinson parody)

Language changes are ‘caught’ by people and passed on ‘like a disease’, this continues through social contact and people pick it up through others then apply it to their own speech. Suggests that ‘bad English’ is like a horrible disease, but Aitchinson argued that although changes are caught and spread, they are voluntary and not a disease.

The Damp Spoon Model (Aitchinson parody)

Language change is ‘distasteful’, ‘lazy’ and ‘bad English’ and sticks to people who are lazy and passive, likened to putting a damp spoon into sugar out of laziness to not find another spoon. Aitchinson argued however that these changes are not a sign of laziness.

The Crumbling Castle Model (Aitchinson parody)

Language is viewed as a beautiful, elaborate castle that requires maintenance and care; changes are perceived as deterioration of its structure. Aitchinson critiques this view, arguing language is not fixed and naturally evolves.

Chen’s S-curve model

A theory that explains how language change occurs gradually in a population, starting slowly, then accelerating as it becomes more common and accepted, and finally leveling off as the change stabilizes and is fully integrated. It illustrates the spread and adoption of new linguistic features over time.

Chen’s S-curve stages

Innovation stage, spread stage, maintenance stage

The unfolding of Language - Guy Deutscher

Language change occurs due to a combination of predictable patterns and shortcuts, twinned with our efforts to be expressive and original. Speakers often take shortcuts in pronunciation but some speakers also make a considerable effort to be innovative, expressive and extend their range of meaning, both of which lead to language change.