Key Concepts in Qualitative and Quantitative Research | Quizlet

Qualitative Research

Research that focuses on people's experiences and the meanings they place on events, processes and structures of their normal social setting. It seeks the 'why' and 'how' behind the 'what'. Understanding is gained through relating and open dialogue, using interpretation techniques.

Quantitative Research

Research in which things are measured that can be counted using predetermined categories that can be treated as interval or ordinal and are subjected to statistical analysis. Results are in the form of numbers, allowing for objective description, testing, segmentation, and prediction.

Positivism

A philosophical perspective that assumes reality is objectively observable, the world is a self-contained reality that can be partitioned, and science is value-free and objective, focused on testing theory. It fits better with quantitative research.

Interpretivism

A philosophical perspective that assumes reality can only be made accessible through social constructions, such as language, and meaning is subjective. Science cannot be value-free or objective, as the researcher is part of the researched. Research aims to understand meaning and looks at the whole picture. It fits better with qualitative research.

Ontology

Refers to the nature of the social world and what can be known about it, including discussions on whether a social reality can be established and how. Key positions include realism, materialism, and idealism.

Realism (in Ontology)

The position that there is an external reality that exists independently of people's beliefs and understandings, creating a distinction between the world as it is and individual interpretations.

Idealism (in Ontology)

The position that reality can only be known through the human mind and through socially constructed meanings.

Epistemology

Refers to the nature of knowledge and how it can be acquired. Key issues include researcher objectivity, the nature of truth, and whether knowledge should be obtained inductively or deductively.

Induction

An approach to obtaining knowledge by looking for patterns and associations during observations of the world, using evidence to establish a conclusion.

Deduction

An approach to obtaining knowledge by reaching hypotheses theoretically using a logically derived process, using evidence to support a conclusion.

Pragmatism

An approach that emphasizes choosing the most appropriate research method, suggesting that qualitative and quantitative methods can be combined. It states that a theory is true only when it has been tested against practice.

Functions of Qualitative Research

Includes contextual (describing the form of something), explanatory (examining reasons or associations), evaluative (assessing effectiveness), and generative (supporting theory development) functions.

Naturally Occurring Data

Data that arises during an investigation of a phenomenon in its natural setting. Methods include participant observation, observation, documentary analysis, discourse analysis, and conversation analysis.

Generated Data

Data from methods that use reconstruction of beliefs, behaviours, or other phenomena, where participants mentally re-process and verbally re-describe experiences. Methods include biographical methods, individual interviews, paired interviews, and focus groups.

Longitudinal Qualitative Research

Research studies that involve more than one episode of data collection. Broad forms include panel studies (same people interviewed more than once) and repeat cross-sectional studies (subsequent samples of new participants).

Purposive Sampling

A non-probability sampling strategy where sample elements are deliberately chosen based on particular criteria to contribute to a comprehensive understanding of the research topic.

Theoretical Sampling

A specific type of purposive sampling where a researcher selects sample elements based on their potential contribution to the development of theoretical constructs, often used in grounded theory. The process is iterative until theoretical saturation is reached.

Theoretical Saturation

The point in theoretical sampling when no new insights can be gained from a new sample, and nothing more can be added to the theory.

Convenience Sampling

A non-probability sampling strategy where the researcher chooses the sample based on ease of access.

Snowballing (or Chain Sampling)

A method to generate a sample frame by asking individuals who have already been interviewed if they know others who meet the selection criteria, useful for dispersed or small populations.

Topic Guide (or Interview Guide/Aide-mémoire)

A tool to improve the consistency of data collection, containing an introduction, easy beginning questions, core questions, and a wind-down section, often using keywords rather than full questions.

Unstructured Data Collection

An approach where data collection involves a broad agenda of issues to be explored across the sample, but the order, wording, and follow-up vary considerably between interviews.

Semi-structured Data Collection

An approach where the interviewer asks key questions in the same way each time and does some probing for further information, but this probing is more limited than in unstructured data collection.

Content Mapping Questions

Types of interview questions that capture the breadth of a topic and identify relevant dimensions or issues for the respondent. Examples include ground mapping, dimension mapping, and perspective-widening questions.

Content Mining Questions

Types of interview questions designed to discover details within each dimension identified by content mapping questions, generating a deep understanding of the respondent's viewpoint. Examples include amplificatory, exploratory, explanatory, and clarificatory probes.

Leading Questions

Questions that prompt or encourage a desired answer from the interviewee, which should be avoided.

Focus Group

A qualitative research method where several respondents are brought together to discuss the research topic in a group, utilizing group interaction to generate data and insights.

Synergistic (in Focus Groups)

A characteristic of focus groups where the group works together, and participants' responses become sharper and more refined as they interact.

Spontaneity (in Focus Groups)

A characteristic of focus groups where respondents reveal more of their frame of reference about the research topic as they respond to each other.

Delphi Method

A method where the researcher poses a question to respondents (often experts), summarizes their responses, and sends the summary back for feedback, repeated until saturation is reached, used when actual focus groups are not feasible.

Moderator (in Focus Groups)

A researcher role in focus groups that involves guiding the discussion, ensuring everyone participates, preventing dominance, and steering the group away from irrelevant areas.

Enabling Techniques

Techniques that help respondents express their opinions, often using visual aids, to overcome barriers like lack of knowledge or politeness. Examples include vignettes and card sorting.

Projective Techniques

Techniques that help respondents express their opinions by projecting their feelings or opinions onto a stimulus, ideally suited for unconscious or sensitive subjects. Examples include word association and sentence completion.

Fieldnotes

Long-established method of data collection, especially in ethnographic research and observation, involving detailed notes of observations and experiences.

In-depth Interview

A qualitative data collection method where structure (from an interview guide) and flexibility are combined in an interactive process between interviewer and respondent to generate comprehensive responses.

Observation (Definition - Chapter 8)

The act of noticing a phenomenon, often using instruments, and recording it for scientific purposes.

Ethnographic Observation

Observational research conducted in naturalistic settings where the researcher is involved in what they observe, assuming roles like complete observer or participant.

Participant Observation

Ethnographic research where the researcher assumes a role within the setting, actively participating and observing.

Observer Bias

The tendency of researchers to see what they want to see or expect to see, which can affect the validity of observational research.

Grounded Theory (Analysis Approach)

An approach to qualitative analysis that involves the generation of analytical categories and their dimensions, and the identification of relationships between them, directly from the data.

Data Management (Analytical Hierarchy)

The first stage in analyzing text, where meaning is assigned to data through labeling, sorting, and bringing together themes and concepts.

Descriptive Accounts (Analytical Hierarchy)

The second stage in analyzing text, where aggregated data is used to identify key dimensions, refine categories, and map the diversity of the phenomenon, potentially leading to typologies.

Explanatory Accounts (Analytical Hierarchy)

The final stage in analyzing text, which looks for patterns of association and relationships within data to understand why these associations exist.

Grounded Theory (Research Method)

A qualitative research method focused on the discovery of theory from data through a non-linear, iterative process involving data collection and analysis until theoretical saturation is reached. Key steps include coding, constant comparison, and developing categories.

Constant Comparative Method

A key process in grounded theory research involving continuously comparing new data with emerging codes and categories to refine and develop the theory.

Open Coding

The initial stage of coding in grounded theory, involving breaking down data into discrete parts, comparing them for similarities and differences, and assigning initial labels or codes.

Typologies

Multidimensional or multifactorial classifications in which categories are discrete and independent, used in descriptive accounts to provide a refined portrayal of positions or characteristics.

Case Study Research (CSR)

Empirical research on a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, where the boundaries between the phenomenon and its context may not be clear, aiming for a deep and systematic understanding of a case.

Unit of Analysis (Case Study)

The major entity that is being analyzed in a case study, such as an individual, group, organization, or event.

Analytical Generalization (Case Study)

The goal of case study research to generalize to theory by developing a theoretical framework that can be compared with the empirical results of the case study.

Construct Validity (Case Study)

A criterion for judging the quality of research designs in case studies, involving identifying correct operational measures for the concepts being studied, often achieved through multiple sources of evidence and a chain of evidence.

Internal Validity (Case Study)

Focused on establishing a causal relationship and distinguishing it from spurious relationships, often achieved through pattern matching and explanation building.

External Validity (Case Study)

A criterion for judging the quality of research designs in case studies, defining the domain to which a study's findings can be generalized, often relying on theory in single-case studies and replication logic in multiple-case studies.

Reliability (Case Study)

The operations of a study can be repeated with the same results, often ensured through a case study protocol and database.

Single-Case Design

A case study design that focuses on a single unit of analysis, chosen for reasons such as being a critical, extreme, typical, revelatory, or longitudinal case.

Multiple-Case Design

A case study design that involves studying multiple units of analysis, following a replication logic where cases are chosen to produce either similar (literal replication) or contrasting (theoretical replication) results for predictable reasons.

Case Study Protocol

A document that contains the instruments, procedures, and general rules to be followed in using the protocol for a case study, especially essential for multiple-case studies.

Chain of Evidence

A principle in case study data collection that ensures transparency and reliability by providing clear links from research questions, data collection, analysis, to the final report.

Triangulation (Data Collection)

The use of multiple sources of evidence, methods, analyses, or theories in qualitative research to increase the credibility and validity of findings.

Pattern Matching (Case Study Analysis)

An analytical technique in case study research that involves looking for recurring patterns and comparing predicted patterns with empirical patterns from the data.

Explanation Building (Case Study Analysis)

An analytical technique in case study research that involves iteratively developing explanations for a phenomenon by making initial theoretical statements, revising them based on evidence, and refining the explanation.

Generalization (Qualitative Research)

In qualitative research, this often refers to generalizing findings to a broader problem or theory rather than to a statistical population. Different forms include inferential, theoretical, and representative generalization.

Reliability (Qualitative Research - Consistency)

The degree to which an observation is consistent with a general pattern and not the result of random chance. In qualitative research, it refers to the consistency of a measurement instrument under different conditions and times.

Internal Validity (Qualitative Research - Measuring Intended)

The extent to which the researcher measures what they really wants to measure and not something else, ensuring that the results are not colored by unintended factors. Threats include observer and interviewer bias.

External Validity (Qualitative Research - Generalizability to Context)

The extent to which conclusions from the research can be generalized to a broader population, setting, or theory, often challenging to establish in qualitative research due to the focus on interpretation and context.

Respondent Validation

A technique to ensure external validity by validating with the respondent whether the research results are in line with their intended meaning and experiences.