psych midterm

theories

Explanations using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

hypotheses

Testable prediction, often implied by a theory

research and observations

Of the theory and hypothesis-testing

operational definition

Carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study

replication

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

case study

\-Examines one individual in-depth -Provides fruitful ideas -Cannot be used to generalize conclusions

naturalistic observation

-Records behavior in natural environment -Describes but does not explain behavior -Can be revealing ex) Jane Goodall- watching chimpanzees in their natural habitat

survey interview

-Examine many cases in less depth -Wording effect

random sampling

uses random sampling of the population for best results

correlation

A measure of how closely two factors vary together, or how well you can predict a change in one from observing a change in the other

double-blind procedure

\-Neither those in the study nor those collecting the data know which group is receiving the treatment -Treatments's actual effects can be separated from potential placebo effect

placebo effect

effect involves results caused by expectations alone

independent variable

factor that is manipulated in an experiment, the variable whose effect is being studied

confounding variable

Factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect

dependent variable

Factor that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

phrenology

Franz Gall's speculations

* bumps on the skull tell us about brains underlying functions (NOT TRUE)

neuroplasticity

The ability of the brain to reorganize itself, both in structure and how it functions

neurogenesis

Continuous generation of new neurons in certain brain regions

new synapses

new skills and experiences create new neural connections

strengthened synapses

repetition and practice strengthen neural connections

weakened synapses

Connections in the brain that aren't used become weak

enriched environment

an environment for the lab rats/mice where instead of solitary cages they had social contact and objects to interact with and move around with and play with- created a little change every day to stimulate the rats

dendrites

receive messages from other cells

axon

passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands

cell body

the cell's life support center

neural impulse

action potential, electrical signal traveling down the axon

myelin sheath

covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses

terminal branches of axon

form junctions with other cells

neural communication

serotonin and dopamine pathways

acetylcholine

enables muscle action, learning, and memory

noradrenaline

Helps control alertness and arousal

glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory Oversupply can overstimulate the brain, producing migraines or seizures.

GABA(gamma-aminobutyric acid)

A major inhibitory neurotransmitter (Undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia.)

endorphins

Neurotransmitters that influence the perception of pain or pleasure

somatic nervous system

sensory input, motor output (skeletal muscles)

autonomic

controls self-regulated action of internal organs and glands

sympathetic

autonomic arousing when a threat happens heart rate increases and the body becomes aroused

parasympathetic

autonomic calming lowering heart rate; sending energy to immune function; digestion; body investing in the future when not stressed and looking forward- taking care of bodily health

sensory neurons

Carry messages from the body's tissues and sensory receptors inward to the spinal cord and brain for processing

motor neurons

Carry instructions from the central nervous system out to the body's muscles

Interneurons

within the brain and spinal cord Communicate with one another and process information between the sensory input and the motor output

reflex arc

A simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus

feeback system

Brain- pituitary- other glands- hormones- body and brain

cerebellum

The "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem Ir helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance About 80% of all neurons are in the cerebellum

hippocampus

memory emotion ; processes conscious, explicit memories; decreases in size and function with age

amygdala

fear and aggression

hypothalamus

emotional responses

cerebral cortex

Two hemispheres- each hemisphere has four lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal

left hemisphere

Thinking in words, sequencing, linear thinking, mathematics, facts, logic

right hemisphere

Feelings, visualization, imagination, intuition, rhythm, holistic thinking, arts

wilhelm wundt

father of psychology

john b. watson

more scientific wanted to look at behavior

consciousness

awareness of self and environment

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

states of consciousness

daydreaming drowsiness dreaming hallucinations orgasm food/oxygen starvation sensory deprivation hypnosis meditation

cognitive neuroscience

Interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

inattentional blindness

failure to see visible objects when attention is directed elsewhere

change blindness

Failure to notice changes in the environment, a form of inattentional blindness

dual processing

Information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious (explicit) and unconscious (implicit) tracts

circadian rhythm

Internal biological clock of 24-hour cycle of day and night

beta brain waves

awake, normal alert consciousness- 14-30 Hz- waves fast and close together

alpha brain waves

Physically and mentally relaxes, awake but drowsy- 9-13 Hz- waves still close together but not as much

theta brain waves

Reduced consciousness, deep meditation, dreams, light sleep, REM sleep- 4-8 Hz- slow and shallow waves

delta brain waves

Deep (dreamless) sleep, loss of bodily awareness- below 4 Hz- a little bigger than theta waves but smaller than alpha waves

insomnia

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

narcolepsy

Sudden uncontrollable sleep attacks, sometimes lapsing directly into REM sleep

sleep apnea

a stoppage of breathing while asleep, is associated with obesity especially in men

night terrors

high arousal and appearance of being terrified

psychoactive drug

A chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods

substance use disorder

A disorder characterized by continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk

tolerance

With repeated use, the desired effect requires larger doses

addiction

Compulsive craving for drugs or certain behaviors (such as gambling) despite knowing the harmful consequences

withdrawal

Discomfort and distress that follow the discontinuation of an addictive drug or behavior

depressants

Drugs such as alcohol, barbiturates (tranquilizers), and opiates calm neural activity and slow body functions

alcohol

-Slows neural processing -Disrupts memory and -impairs growth of synaptic connections -Reduces self-awareness and self-control

barbiturates

Depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment Can impair memory and judgment; potentially lethal when combined with alcohol Nembutal, seconal, and amytal

opaites

\- heroine, morphine -Constrict the pupils, slow breathing, and cause lethargy -Depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

stimulant drugs

\-cocaine -excite nueral activity and speed up body functions -cause dialation of pupils, increased heart and breathing rates increase in energy and self confidence

nicotine

\-Signals the central nervous system to release a flood of neurotransmitters -Diminishes appetite, boosts alertness and mental efficiency calms anxiety, and reduces sensitivity to pain

cocaine

Produces a quick rush of euphoria A crash of agitated depression occurs within 15 to 30 minutes after neurotransmitter levels drop Psychological effects depend on the dosage and form consumed and the user's expectations and personality Cocaine euphoria and crash

methamphetamine

Psychological effects depend on the dosage and form consumed and the user's expectations and personality Powerfully addictive

ecstacy

Synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen Produces euphoria but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to mood and cognition

hallucinogens

distort perception, call up sensory images without any input from the senses

Marijuana

THC, lingers in the body, relaxes, chronic bronchitis, increased suicidal thoughts

LSD

acid, hallucinogenic drug, interferes with serotonin neurotransmitter system

sensation

The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from the environment

perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

prosopagnosia

face blindness

gustav fechner

turned psychology from a mentalist field into something with a systematic basis

bottom-up processing

Analysis that beings with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

top-down processing

Information processing is guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

transduction

conversion of one for of energy into another

sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

wavelength

Distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next.

hue

Dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth

intensity

The amount of energy in a light wave or sound wave influences what we perceive as brightness or loudness. Intensity is determined by the wave's amplitude (height)

perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

rods

Retinal receptors that detect black white and gray and that are sensitive to movement; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision when cones don't respond

cone

Retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or well-lit conditions. Cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations