Honors Psychology Final Study Guide

Psychology

The study of the human mind and behavior

Schools of Psychology

Structuralism, Functionalism, Behaviorism, Gestalt School, Cognitive Psychology

What is a key process that must be followed in psychology?

The scientific method

What must be eliminated to ensure objectivity in psychological research?

Bias

What type of concerns must be addressed when drawing conclusions about human beings in psychology?

Ethical concerns

Wilhelm Wundt

- Studied reaction time and "awareness"

- First psychology lab in Leipzig, Germany (1879)

- Staffed by students

William James

a psychologist who created behaviorism

Structuralism

explores the structure of the human mind by using introspection (self-reflection)

Functionalism

explores how adaptive functions of the brain

Behaviorism

- The study of psychology is only concerned with observable actions without regard to mental processes

Name some important Behavior Psychologists?

Watson, Pavlov, Skinner

Gestalt School of Psychology

- Early schools of psychology that originated in Germany

- Human ability to perceive elements as part of a larger system

- "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts"

Cognitive Psychology

a branch of psychology that focuses on the study of mental processes, such as perception, memory, attention, language, and problem-solving

Freudian Psychology

discusses topics such as the unconscious mind, personality, motivation, and defense psychology is limited

Sigmund Freud

- a famous psychologist known for establishing the field of talk therapy, dream analysis, and psychoanalysis

- known for Freudian psychology!

War of Identity

Id, Ego, Super Ego

Id

Unconscious thoughts, desires

Ego

Contains our common sense, rational personality

Super Ego

internalization of morals (usually taught by parents)

Scientific Method

a method of procedure for testing scientific questions and theories

What are the steps of the scientific method?

Ask a question, form a hypothesis, test the hypothesis, analyze, draw conclusions, replicate results

Replication

The ability to reproduce results following the same procedure

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to believe that we are correct

Replication

The ability to reproduce results following the same procedure

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to interpret only evidence that supports our beliefs while ignoring evidence that contradicts it

Hindsight Bias

- The tendency to believe something was inevitable after seeing it occur

- "I knew it all along phenomena

Overconfidence Bias

The tendency to believe that we are correct

Volunteer Bias

Occurs because surveys can only evaluate people who choose to take it

Types of Research in Psychology

Descriptive, correlational, experimental

Descriptive Research

Research that observes and records

Correlational Research

Research that observes the relationship between variables

Experimental Research

Research that manipulates variables to determine cause and effect

Case Studies

- a complex, multi-faceted investigation of an individual or small group of individuals, events, or community

- Usually narrative or biographical in nature, or relates to past events or everyday occurrences

Strengths of Case Studies

Provides detailed information, provides insight for further research, permits investigation of otherwise impractical situations

Weaknesses of Case Studies

Can't generalize the results to the wider population, overinflation of significance due to small sample sizes, researcher's subjective feelings may influence the case study, difficult to replicate, and time-consuming

Naturalistic Observation

- observing behavior in the natural environment

- No control or interaction, strictly observation

Surveys

Determines the self-reported attitudes, opinions, or behaviors of a population by questioning a sample of people

Target Population

the group of people whom your study will apply

Random Sample

- The sample of people who take the survey is selected totally randomly

- Everyone in the population has an equal chance of being chosen

Stratified Sample

The sample of people is chosen strategically to match the demographic breakdown of the population

Generalization

When you can accurately apply the results from your sample to your target population

Variables

A component of an experiment that can be controlled or manipulated

Dependent Variable

Factor that is measured based on the change made to the independent variable

Independent Variable

Factor that is manipulated to test its effect

Confounding Variable

A variable other than the independent variable that could affect the dependent variable

Experimental Group

Group exposed to the independent variable

Control Group

Group receiving no treatment or independent variable; used as comparison

Experimenter Bias

Tendency of a researcher to treat experimental and control groups differently to confirm their hypothesis

Placebo Effect

- When a "fake" substance delivers a real, measurable result

- Effects caused by the participant's expectation

Single Blind Study

Participants are unaware whether they are in the experimental group or control group

Double Blind Study

Participants and experimenters are unaware of who is in the experimental or control group

Ethical Guidelines

Informed consent, limited deception, protection from harm and discomfort, confidentiality, debriefing

Informed Consent

Subjects must have knowledge of the experiment and sign a waiver to give their consent

Limited Deception

Deception is only permitted when it is only permitted when it is necessary for the outcome, and must be limited to avoid harm

Protection from Harm and Discomfort

Limit harm and risk

Confidentiality

Participant's personal information is kept private

Neuron

- nerve cells that send and receive messages

- Building blocks of the neuron systems

- Humans have 100

Dendrites

Structures that surround the cell body and receive messages from other neurons

Axons

Send messages away to other neurons

Myelin Sheath

Insulation on some axons, which makes messages move faster and more efficiently

Axon terminals

The ends of the axons where messages are sent

Glial cells

Cells that support and provide nutrients for neurons

Synapse

The junction (gap) between an axon terminal and a dendrite

Action Potential

An electrical charge that travels down an axon to send a message

Neurotransmitters

- Chemicals are stored in sacs in axon terminals

- Deliver the neural action potential across the synapse to activate another impulse (action potential) in the next neuron

What are some examples of neurotransmitters?

Dopamine, GABA, epinephrine, serotonin, endorphins, and acetylcholine

Central Nervous System

- Consists of the brain and the spinal cord

- Spinal cord transmits messages between the brain and the body

- Reflexes are automatic responses to stimuli

Peripheral Nervous System

Transmits messages from the CNS to the rest of the body

Somatic Nervous System

- transmits sensory messages

- 5 senses

- Senses position changes

Autonomic Nervous System

Regulates vital functions like heartbeat, breathing, and blood pressure

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Calming

Sympathetic Nervous System

Fight or flight

Endocrine System

- consists of glands, which secrete hormones

- Glands have receptors for specific hormones

What do hormones do?

Flow through the bloodstream and deliver messages to the body

Pituitary Gland

- Releases human growth hormones which controls growth

- Releases prolactin and oxytocin, which control mothering functions

- Called the "master gland"

- Produces TSH

What does TSH stand for?

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone

Pineal Gland

Responsible for producing melatonin, which regulates mood and sleep

Thyroid Gland

- Secretes a hormone called thyroxin which regulates metabolism in the body. Thyroxin is activated by TSH produced in the Pituitary gland

What happens if you have too much thyroxin?

Weight loss

What happens if you don't have enough thyroxin?

Weight Gain

Adrenal Gland

- Releases hormones that control stress, muscles, and metabolism

- Norepinephrine and epinephrine can intensify emotions and the body's response to stress

- Releases cortisol, a hormone that activates your body's response to stress

What are the cortisol functions?

Reduces inflammation, regulates blood pressure, increases blood sugar, regulates sleep/wake cycle, boosts energy

The Brainstem consists of three parts. What are they?

Medulla Oblongata, Pons, Reticular Formation

Medulla oblongata

Base of the brainstem, controls involuntary actions of heart beat breathing

Pons

- Connects the thalamus and medulla

- Functions include sensory roles of balance, taste, facial expressions, sleep

Reticular Formation

- System of neurons/nerve fibers that filters important information from the spinal cord to the rest of the brain

- Responsible for alertness and consciousness

Cerebellum

- "Little brain"

- Voluntary movement, coordination, and balance

- Nonverbal learning and memory

Thalamus

-The brain's hub for sensory information

- Receives all sensory info

- Relays sensory info to the higher brain structures

Frontal Lobe

- Memory formation

- Decision making/judgement

- Reasoning

- Emotions

- Personality

Parietal Lobe

- Sensation

- Perception

- Spatial awareness

Temporal Lobe

- Hearing

- Comprehension of language

- Information retrieval (memory)

Occipital Lobe

- Processing visual information

- Interpreting visual information

Zygote

- a newly fertilized egg that rapidly divides to form a human embryo

- Exists for 10 days before becoming an embryo

Placenta

Passes oxygen and nutrients to the fetus and screens out toxins

Embryo

- the developing human organism from about 10 days after fertilization through the end of the 8th week

Fetus

The developing human organism from 9 weeks until birth

Teratogens

- Harmful agents such as chemicals and viruses

- Reach the embryo or fetus during development and cause harm

What are some examples of Teratogens?

Radiation, over-the-counter meds, drugs

Moro Reflux

When an infant is startled, it will spread and retract his arms quickly

Babinski Reflex

When a baby's foot is stroked he will spread his toes