Psychology Final- Jake

American Psychological Association (APA)

professional organization representing psychologists in the United States

behaviorism

focus on observing and controlling behavior

biopsychology

study of how biology influences behavior

biopsychosocial model

perspective that asserts that biology, psychology, and social factors interact to determine an individual’s health

clinical psychology

area of psychology that focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and other problematic patterns of behavior

cognitive psychology

study of cognitions, or thoughts and their relationship to experiences and actions

counseling psychology

area of psychology that focuses on improving emotional, social, vocational and other aspects of the lives of psychologically healthy individuals

developmental psychology

scientific study of development across a lifespan

disseration

long research paper about research that was conducted as a part of the candidate’s doctoral training

empirical method

method for acquiring knowledge based on observation, including experimentation, rather than a method based on only forms of logical argument or previous authorities

forensic psychology

area of psychology that applies the science and practice of psychology to issues within and related to the justice system

functionalism

focused on how mental activities helped an organism adapt to its environment

humanism

perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans

introspection

process by which someone examines their own conscious experience in an attempt to break it into its component parts

ology

suffix that denotes “scientific study of”

personality psychology

study of patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make individuals unique

personality trait

consistent pattern of thought and behavior

PhD (doctor of philosophy)

doctoral degree conferred in many disciplinary perspectives housed in a traditional college of liberal arts and sciences

postdoctoral training program

allows young scientists to further develop their research programs and broaden their research skills under the supervision of other professionals in the field

psychoanalytic theory

focuses on the role of the unconscious in affecting conscious behavior

psychology

scientific study of the mind and behavior

PsyD (doctor of psychology)

doctoral degree that places less emphasis on research-oriented skills and focuses more on application of psychological principles in the clinical context

sports and exercise psychology

area of psychology that focuses on the interaction between mental and emotional factors and physical performance in sports, exercise, and other activities

structuralism

understanding the conscious experience through introspection

archival research

method of research using past records or data sets to answer various questions, or to search for interesting patterns or relationships

attrition

reduction in number of research participants as some drop out of the study over time

cause-and-effect relationship

changes in one variable cause the changes in the other variable; can be determined only through an experimental research design

clinical or case study

observational research study focusing on one or few people

confirmation bias

tendency to ignore evidence that disproves ideas or beliefs

confounding variable

unanticipated outside factor that affects both variables of interest, often giving the false impression that changes in one variable causes changes in the other variable, when, in actuality, the outside factor causes change in both variables

control group

serves as a basis for comparison and controls for chance factors that might influence the results of the study- by holding such factors constant across groups so that the experimental manipulation is the only difference between groups

correlation

relationship between two or more variables; when two variables are correlated, one variable changes as the other does

correlation coefficient

number from -1 to +1, indicating the strength and direction of the relationship between variables, and usually represented by r

cross-sectional research

compares multiple segments of a population at a single time

debriefing

when an experiment involved deception, participants are told complete and truthful information about the experiment at its conclusion

deception

purposely misleading experiment participants in order to maintain the integrity of the experiment

deductive reasoning

results are predicted based on general premise

dependent variable

variable that the researcher measures to see how much effect the independent variable had

double-blind study

experiment in which both the researchers and the participants are blind to group assignments

empirical

grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing

experimental group

group designed to answer research question; experimental manipulation is the only difference between the experimental and control groups, so any differences between the two are due to experimental manipulation rather than chance

experimenter bias

researcher expectations skew the results of the study

fact

objective and verifiable observation, established using evidence collected through empirical research

falsifiable

able to be disproven by experimental results

generalize

inferring that the results for a sample apply to the larger population

hypothesis (plural: hypotheses)

tentative and testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables

illusory correlation

seeing relationships between two things when in reality no such relationship exists

independent variable

variable that is influenced or controlled by the experimenter; in a sound experimental study, the independent variable is the only important difference between the experimental and control group

inductive reasoning

conclusions are drawn from observations

informed consent

process of informing a research participant about what to expect during an experiment, any risks involved, and the implications of the research, and then obtaining the person’s consent to participate

Institutional Animal Care and Use committee (IACUC)

committee of administrators, scientists, veterinarians, and community members that review proposals for research involving non-human animals

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

committee of administrators, scientists, and community members that review proposals for research involving human participants

inter-rater reliability

measure of agreement among observers on how they record and classify a particular event

longitudinal research

studies in which the same group of individuals is surveyed or measured repeatedly over an extended period of time

naturalistic observation

observation of behavior in its natural setting

negative correlation

two variables change in different directions, with one becoming larger as the other becomes smaller; a negative correlation is not the same thing as no correlation

observer bias

when observations may be skewed to align with observer expectations

operational definition

description of what actions and operations will be used to measure the dependent variables and manipulate the independent variables

participants

subjects of psychological research

peer-reviewed journal article

article read by several other scientists (usually anonymously) with expertise in the subject matter, who provide feedback regarding the quality of the manuscript before it is accepted for publication

placebo effect

people’s expectations or beliefs influencing or determining their experience in a given situation

population

overall group of individuals that the researchers are interested in

positive correlation

two variables change in the same direction, both becoming either larger or smaller

random assignment

method of experimental group assignment in which all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group

random sample

subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

reliability

repeating an experiment using different samples to determine the research’s reliability

sample

subset of individuals selected from the larger population

single-blind study

experiment in which the researcher knowns which participants are in the experimental group and which are in the control group

statistical analysis

determines how likely any difference between experimental groups is due to chance

survey

list of questions to be answered by research participants- given as paper- and pencil questionnaires, administered electronically, or conducted verbally- allowing researchers to collect data from a large number of people

theory

well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena

validity

accuracy of a given result in measuring what it is designed to measure

action potential

electronical signal that moves down the neuron’s axon

adrenal gland

sit atop our kidneys and secretes hormones involved in the stress response

agonist

drug that mimics or strengthens the effect of a neurotransmitter

all-or- none

phenomenon that incoming signal from another neuron is either sufficient or insufficient to reach the threshold of excitation

allele

specific version of a gene

amygdala

structure in the limbic system involved in our experience of emotion and tying emotional meaning to our memories

antagonist

drug that blocks or impedes the normal activity of a given neurotransmitter

auditory cortex

strip of cortex in the temporal lobe that is responsible for processing auditory information

autonomic nervous system

controls our internal organs and glands

axon

major extension of the soma

biological perspective

view that psychological disorders like depression and schizophrenia are associated with imbalances in one or more neurotransmitter system

Broca’s area

region in the left hemisphere that is essential for language production

central nervous system (CNS)

brain and spinal cord

cerebellum

hindbrain structure that controls our balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills and it is thought to be important in processing some type of memory

cerebral cortex

surface of the brain that is associated with our highest mental capabilities

chromosome

long strand of genetic information

computerized tomography (CT) scan

imaging technique in which a computer coordinates and integrates multiple x-rays of a given area

corpus callosum

thick band of neutral fibers connecting the brains two hemispheres

dendrites

branch-like extension of the soma that receives incoming signals from other neurons

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

helix-shaped molecule made of nucleotide base pairs

diabetes

disease related to insufficient insulin production

dominant allele

allele whose phenotype will be expressed in an individual that possesses that allele

electroencephalography (EEG)

recording the electrical activity of the brain via electrodes on the scalp

endocrine system

series of glands that produce chemical substances known as hormones

epigenetics

study of gene- environment interactions, such as how the same genotype leads to different phenotypes

fight or flight response

activation of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system, allowing access to energy reserves and heightened sensory capacity so that we might fight off a given threat or run away to safety

forebrain

largest part of the brain, containing the cerebral cortex, the thalamus, and the limbic system, among other structures

fraternal twins

twins who develop from two different eggs fertilized by different sperm, so their genetic material varies the same as in non-twin siblings