Cognitive theories

What is operant conditioning

The use of reinforcement to ensure that correct responses are repeated

Vicarious reinforcement

Learning that takes place by watching negative reinforcement in somebody else

Key points of operant conditioning

Based on trial and error

Uses reinforcement to shape behavior

Coach can manipulate the environment

What is the Stimulus-Response bond

The link between the stimulus and response

Positive reinforcement

When pleasant stimulus is given after a correct response

Negative reinforcement

When an unpleasant stimulus is removed after a correct response

Punishment

Where an unpleasant stimulus follows an incorrect action

Satisfier

Rewards given for correct action (e.g. praise from coach)

Annoyer

Behaviors or actions given to punish the incorrect action (e.g. being shouted at by the coach)

How to strengthen the S-R bond

Use of positive reinforcement

Trying to ensure early success to develop confidence

Establish mental rehearsal routines

Utilise whole practice to develop understanding

Introduce negative reinforcement

Understanding when to use punishment

Evaluation of operant conditioning

Learner isn’t required to know why they are doing something

Trial and error may lead to the wrong technique being adapted if it meets initial success

Learner may not be able to react when stimulus is slightly different

Beginners may not understand negative reinforcement or punishment

What is observational learning

Learning which occurs through observing the behavior of others (social learning theory)

What are the stages of observational learning

Attention

Retention

Motor Production

Motivation

Key points of observational learning

Observation of the behavior of others

Influence of the type of behavior viewed is likely to be repeated

Modelling occurs

Vicarious reinforcement

“Learn from others’ mistakes” - Only works if consequence is consistent

Attention

Making the demonstration attractive to the performer, must be relatable, accurate and correct for learning to occur

Retention

The ability to remember important information and recall it from the memory system. Can be helped with chunking. Gap between the demonstration and performance should be short to increase the chance of success

Motor production

Having the mental and physical ability to complete the task. Performers must be given time to practice skills before moving on.

Motivation

The drive to learn a task. Can be intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic better than extrinsic.

How do we ensure behaviors are copied in observational learning

The initial demonstration should be performed by a player of similar ability

There should be reinforcement

There are powerful visual and physical demonstrations

The demonstrations must be consistent

The demonstrations must be relevant

Evaluation of observational learning

May not take environment skill will be performed in into account

The demonstration has to be correct

Hard to distinguish between whether the learning takes place purely as observations or if the other forms of guidance can be more dominant

What is the social development theory

Learning by association with others

Key points of the social development theory

Social interaction is a major factor leading to cognitive development

Link between communication and internal through process

MKOs - More Knowledgeable Other

ZPD - Zone of Proximal Development

Language

What does the MKO do

They influence the learner by giving advance, direct examples and influence behaviors

Two types of learning (SDT)

Intra- and Inter-Psychological learning

Intra-Psychological learning

Learning which takes place from the use of past experiences of the performer

Inter-psychological learning

Learning which takes place with the help of an external person or source

Constructivism (using the ZPD)

1) What can I do alone?

2) What can I do with help?

3) What can I not yet do?

Evaluation of the Social development theory

Learning is dependant on accurate modelling from the MKO

Learning depends on the ability of the performer to progress

Learning requires the MKO to provide external input before the performer can use intra-psychological learning

What is insight learning

When the performer uses existing knowledge to form an idea of how to deal with problematic sporting situations

Key points of Insight learning

Humans learn through the whole experience, not in parts

Not based on trial and error alone

4 laws: Similarity, Continuity, Proximity, Closure

What factors enable insight learning

Experience

Intelligence

Learning situation

Initial efforts

Repetition and generalisations

Learning plateau

A period of performance where there are no signs of improvement from a performer

Causes of learning plateus

Lack of motivation

Boredom

Coaching

Limit of ability

Targets set too low

Fatigue or Injury

How to fix plateaus

Extend the task for new challenges

Players can find a new coach

Coach could offer more praise and positive reinforcement

A break could be taken

More variety could be added to the task

The player could be given feedback to help improve performance

The plateau could be explained to the performer

Three stages of learning

Cognitive → Associative → Autonomous

Cognitive stage

First stage

Involves thinking about the skill as it is performed

Motor programmes are not developed yet

Associative

This stage is of longer duration, where the performer moves from being a beginner to a more competent performer

Feedback for learning can be varied

Movements are becoming smoother and more coordinated

Autonomous stage

Reached after a lot of effective practice

However, practice must continue to remain at this level

Actions become fluent, efficient and automatically controlled

Motor programme fully developed