Induction Booklet Exam Style Definition Questions

Nature

Nature

• Refers to the idea that social behaviour is biological or innate. Some believe that certain innate traits are biologically determined due to our genes and biological make up.

• An example of behaviour which is a result of nature could be sleeping, for example there are case studies of feral children, who, despite lacking nurture, still naturally required sleep in order to survive. Another example of a behaviour which is due to nature could be blinking. We need to do this in order to keep our eyes moist in order to protect our eyes and our sight.

Nurture

• Refers to the idea that social behaviour is socially constructed. Some believe that certain traits are built and changed by society due to the way a person has been socialised.

• An example of behaviour which is a result of nurture could be singing, because it can be taught and learnt over time. Another example of a behaviour which is due to nurture could be temperament, because it can depend on how the child was socialised in their primary socialisation.

Primary socialisation

• The process by which we learn norms, values and behaviour which is appropriate to our society. Primary socialisation is the way this behaviour is learned through the agent of family.

• An example of behaviour learned through primary socialisation could be learning how to walk. This behaviour, if not taught, can lead to the idea of a feral child. Another example of behaviours learned through primary socialisation is eating with a knife and fork. This behaviour is taught through the norms and values the family teaches.

Secondary socialisation

• The process by which we learn norms, values and behaviour which is appropriate to our society. Secondary socialisation is the way this behaviour is learned through agents other than the family such as the media, education, peer group, work and religion.

• An example of behaviour learned through secondary socialisation could be norms and values such as punctuality, hard work and obedience. These are transmitted through education and the hidden curriculum as discussed by Bourdieu. Another example of behaviours learned through socialisation is smoking and drinking. These behaviours may be learnt through the peer group and processes of social control such as peer pressure.

Formal social control

• Used to reinforce society’s norms and values to individuals via the agents of socialisation. Formal social control refers to reinforcing mechanisms that are associated with the more formal agents of socialisation such as the police and courts.

• An example of formal social control would be sanctions. The police may punish an individual for a particular behaviour that goes against society’s norms and values. Another example of formal social control would be official rules. The government reinforces certain rules that must be obeyed which keep society having respect for one another.

Informal social control

• Used to reinforce society’s norms and values to individuals via the agents of socialisation. Informal social control refers to reinforcing mechanisms that are associated with the more informal agents of socialisation such as the media and peer groups.

• An example of informal social control would be peer pressure. The peer group may put pressure on an individual to behave in a way that goes against society’s norms and values; this is normally associated with youth culture. Another example of informal social control would be imitation of role models. The media may reinforce hegemonic gender norms and values for individuals by displaying role models for individuals to follow.

Norms

• Unwritten rules which guide our behaviour in society and are based on values. They are socially constructed - they are relative meaning they are not fixed and therefore different in different societies and they change over time. They are taught through agents of socialisation.

• An example of a norm is eating with a knife and fork. This is a norm in the UK but not in all countries and cultures. Another example of norms could be those which relate to your gender. It is a norm for a girl to wear a skirt but if a boy did this they would be seen as deviant. This is discussed by Oakley who discusses how the family socialises us into gender norms and behaviour.

Values

• The fundamental beliefs reinforcing community or society and providing general principles for human behaviour. They are either principles of law enforced through formal agencies of social control, or they are general organising principles for life through agencies of socialisation.

• An example of a value is one should not harm others. This is a general principle that people follow because it is ethically moral. Another example of a value is one should not lie because everyone believes that telling the truth is the right thing to do.

Status

• Each role a person fulfils will have a status attached to it. A person’s status can either be ascribed or achieved and high or low.

• An example of a status could be that of a prince which would be an ascribed status. For example Prince Harry was born into royalty. Another example of a status could be an actor which is an achieved status. For example Megan Markle worked for her career in acting.

Roles

• A part you play in society. People may have more than one role at the same time and each role has a set of norms or patterns of behaviour attached. These may be different in different societies or change over time.

• An example of a role could be that of a teacher, where staff are expected to be professional, safeguard students, plan lessons, attend meetings and help students to develop. Roles may also be different for different genders. For example, the female role is traditionally seen as being that of a mother and housewife, whereas the male role is seen as being the breadwinner or provider. This is discussed by Parsons who discusses how the family socialises us into hegemonic gender roles.

Culture

• The language, beliefs, values, norms, customs, roles, knowledge and skills which combine to make up the way of life of any society. This culture is transmitted through socialisation from one generation to the next.

• An example of culture is a subculture. This could be a youth subculture where they may share deviant norms and values which go against what society expects from them. Another example of culture is high culture, where those with wealth take part in activities expected of the high class, including water polo and going to the races.

Subculture

• Refers to a smaller group within a larger culture. Groups of young people who do not follow the same norms and values as each other often form subcultures. They differ in terms of fashion, music, leisure interests and behaviour.

• An example of a subculture was suggested by Cohen, who discussed the Mods and Rockers. These were two conflicting youth subcultures who acted deviant and broke social norms by dressing and behaving differently. Another example of a subculture was discussed by McRobbie who discusses how young girls in the 70s formed a ‘bedroom culture’ as they socialised in their bedrooms and followed the cult of femininity portrayed by the media.

High culture

• Culture of the elite or the upper class and is formed by the members of the elite who believe that only people with good breeding and with appropriate education can appreciate this cultures artistic and aesthetic quality. They operate a system of social closure so that people who do not occupy privileged positions cannot access it.

• An example of a high culture would be going to the theatre. This activity is associated with the rich because tickets can be expensive. Another example of a high culture is going to horse racing. Only people of the higher class go to this event so everyone there appreciates the high culture.

Popular culture

• Culture of ordinary people and people engage in many mass produced forms of entertainment. The media plays a role in creating popular culture and it sometimes borrows an idea from high culture and popularises it amongst the masses.

• An example of popular culture is having a phone or electronics. This was once part of high culture but was then popularised in popular culture. Another example of popular culture is going on holiday. The media plays a big part in influencing people’s behaviour and what they choose to spend their money on.

Global culture

• Has emerged as a result of globalisation and means the world has become a global village where cultural homogeneity is a key feature. It has been formed because the world has become increasingly interconnected socially, politically and economically.

• An example of global culture is McDonalds because it once started in America but now it has spread to many different countries and cultures. Another example of global culture is Apple because it has become popular all over the world and helps people connect with one another in an efficient way.

Consumer culture

• Related to what we buy/consume in society. People often portray a sense of identity through what we buy/wear. The UK and Western Societies have growing and large consumer cultures.

• An example of consumer culture affecting identity is portrayed by Saunders. He suggests the media targets middle age as they are the group with the highest disposable income and they often define their identity by what they own and show this off. This is known as conspicuous consumption. Another example of consumer culture is the existence of different forms of shopping now available, including, large shopping centres and internet shopping.

Cultural diversity

• Refers to a culture that includes a diverse range of groups from different cultural backgrounds living separately in society. It relates to culturally-embedded differences within society.

• An example of cultural diversity would be China Town in London because it is a culture that has been embedded into a different culture. Another example of cultural diversity is York because many different cultures are combined together there.

Cultural hybridity/multicultural

• Refers to different cultures living equally in society. It promotes the view that all ethnic groups have the same status in society and have an equal right to preserve their own cultural heritage.

• An example of multiculturalism is school because many different children from different cultures are mixed together in one community. Another example of multiculturalism would be a Chinese Takeaway because it shows preservation of a culture in a predominantly one culture area.

Identity

• The qualities, beliefs, personality traits, appearance and expressions that characterise a person or group. These are made through both primary and secondary socialisation and are influenced by formal and informal agents of social control.

• An example of an identity is your age because you can be identified by how old you are and the way you act at this age. Another example of an identity is your gender because people can identify someone based on what gender they are and how they live up to the expectations of that gender.