cognition

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

metacognition

cognition about our cognition; keeping track of and evaluating our mental processes.

concepts

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories

schemas

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information or in simpler words, concepts or mental molds into which we pour our experiences

assimilate

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas.

accommodate

in developmental psychology, adapting our current schemas (understandings) to incorporate new information

creativity

the ability to produce new and valuable ideas.

convergent thinking

narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution.

divergent thinking

expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions.

Functional fixedness

prior experiences inhibit our ability to find creative solutions

5 components of creativity

1. Expertise: well-developed knowledge

2. Imaginative thinking skills: to see things in novel ways, to recognize patterns, and to make connections.

3. A venturesome personality: seeks new experiences, tolerates ambiguity and risk, and perseveres in overcoming obstacles.

4. Intrinsic motivation: the quality of being driven more by interest, satisfaction, and challenge than by external pressures like meeting deadlines, impressing people, or making money — than the pleasure and stimulation of the work itself.

5. A creative environment: sparks, supports, and refines creative ideas.

executive functions

cognitive skills that work together, enabling us to generate, organize, plan, and implement goal-directed behavior.

algorithms

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier but more error-prone use of heuristics.

heuristics

a simple thinking strategy — a mental shortcut — that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than an algorithm

insight

a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions.

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.

fixation

the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem solving.

intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning.

Representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information.

Gambler’s fallacy

When people observe random events repeatedly and unconsciously use the representativeness heuristic when judging the likelihood of future events.

Availability heuristic

judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

Overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct — to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments

planning fallacy

overestimating our future leisure time and income

sunk-cost fallacy

we stick to our original plan because we’ve invested our time, even when switching to a new approach could save us time

Belief perseverance

the persistence of one’s initial conceptions even after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited (sometimes aided by confirmation bias)

framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments

considering and pondering on the opposite view can be done to ensure that belief perseverance does not impact the ability to think objectively

nudge

framing choices in a way that encourages people to make beneficial decisions.

Memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storing, and retrieving of information.

3 measures of retention

Recall: retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious awareness but that was learned at an earlier time. A fill-in-the-blank question tests your recall.

Recognition: identifying items previously learned. A multiple-choice question tests your recognition.

Relearning: learning something more quickly when you learn it a second or later. Reviewing the first weeks of coursework to prepare for your final exam or speaking a language used in early childhood will make it easier to relearn the material than it was to learn it initially.

3 components of the information processing model

Encode: get information into our brain.

Store: retain the information.

Retrieve: later get the information back out of our brain.

3 processing stages

sensory, short-term, and long-term memory

Working memory: a newer understanding of short-term memory; conscious, active processing of both (1) incoming sensory information, and (2) information retrieved from long-term memory.

Automatic processing: occurs behind the scenes to allow information to slip into long-term memory without the need to consciously attend to it

Working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory; conscious, active processing of both (1) incoming sensory information, and (2) information retrieved from long-term memory.

Automatic processing

occurs behind the scenes to allow information to slip into long-term memory without the need to consciously attend to it

Baddley’s 2002 model

Phonological loop: a memory component that briefly holds auditory information (short-term memory)

Visuospatial sketchpad: a memory component that briefly holds information about objects’ appearance and location in space (long-term)

Central executive: a memory component that coordinates the activities of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad by directing attention to relevant information from each system, allowing for the simultaneous processing and manipulation of both verbal and visual-spatial information

Long-term potentiation

an increase in a nerve cell’s firing potential after a brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory; a long-lasting increase in a nerve cell’s firing power

Two drugs are being developed to enhance memory functioning

1) Drugs that boost levels of glutamate, an LTP-enhancing neurotransmitter

2) Drugs that boost the production of CREB, a protein that also enhances the LTP process → boost might trigger increased production of other proteins that help reshape synapses and transfer short-term memories into long-term memories.