Studied by 8 peoplefunctionalism and religion
religion inhibits change and helps keep society as is, keeps social order
Durkheim
religion creates collective conscience through secondary socialisation
teaches followers norms and values of society, religion reinforces value consensus through creating social order
Durkheim case study
Aboriginals- religion based on totemism- symbol represents community which provides society with collective conscience
they renew N and V by going back to totem
Malinowski
religion provides society with psychological function when faced with life crises e.g. funeral
gives rite of passage and helps society return to normality as quick as possible- promotes stability and acts as a rite of passage
Malinowski study
Trobian Islanders- religious rituals when fishing in dangerous oceans but not in calm lagoon- religion helps in times of uncertainty
Parsons
religion maintains social order and value consensus
provides guidelines for human action through ‘core values’
Bellah
America have identified a civil religion as Americanism which unites society
they pray ‘god save America’ social cohesion, collective feeling generates order and stability
criticisms of functionalism
religion doesn’t always promote harmony- conflict between religions
ignores role religion can play in promoting social change
secularisation means religion performs less functions- less relevant
Marx
religion is used to exploit WC
religion benefits capitalism in 2 ways:
inequality is God given- therefore unchangeable
poverty is a test from God that will be compensated for in afterlife
proletariat- accept inequality and religion maintains FCC
evidence for Marx
industrial rev- christianity controls the workers- stay sober and work hard
Pharaohs- rulers and Gods- highlighting control
quote for religion- rich won’t make it to heaven, poor will
‘it is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter kingdom of heaven’
Marx quote
religion is the ‘opium of the people’- dulls pain through temp high
Lenin
Religion as spiritual gin- intoxicant that numbs pain of oppression
Marxism eval
fewer people go to a place of worship- if people don’t worship its hard for them to be duped by religious ideology
religion is also still strong in societies without oppression- Russia and eastern Europe had more religion that capitalist west in 20th century
feminist view of religion
religion is male dominated- God is man, sacred texts portray women negatively
women seen as temptresses of men- Eve and apple
De Beauvoir
religion tricks women into thinking they are equal in the eyes of God and they will be compensated for any hardship in afterlife
Armstrong
women are blocked from high positions in churches
CofE women cannot progress to top religious positions- same in many other religions
arguments against feminist view
bigger picture- other social and cultural influences which contribute towards creation of patriarchy
women also fight against the oppression e.g. women in Afghanistan under Taliban’s rule secretly educate girls
postmodernism
traditional religions have lost their significance in society and lack ability to encourage social stability or change
religion attempts to claim a monopoly of truth- impossible in postmodern world as there is no generalised truth in fragmented society
Hervieu Leger
religion’s reluctance to change has led to increasing unpopularity
post modern world- many alternate world views to compete with and this has led to cultural amnesia
Lyon
identities are fluent in postmodern world
individuals are constantly constructing new identities which has led to an emergence of a religious marketplace
religious leaders have turned to media in order to publicise their belief system to survive
religion as conservative
religious attitudes tend to be quite old fashioned e.g. Taliban
religion keeps things as they are- caste system in India prevails due to Hindu belief in reincarnation
view of marxists, feminist and functionalists
New Christian Right (religion not a force for change)
conservative fundamentalist movement- heavily critiqued by mainstream Americans because they oppose liberal views- challenge LGBTQ and abortion
Bruce suggests NCR will not achieve cultural change due to their unwillingness to cooperate with others
Iran- religion as a conservative force change
Islamic fundamentalists encourage social change- revolution against the Shah (who were beginning to make Iran more western)
everyone went back to Islamic customs
NM- religion conservative force for change
Bloch- religion acts as a principle of hope whereby people’s idea of heaven is attempted to be brought to reality, leading to positive- the dual character of religion
Maduro- Liberation theory- Catholic Priests in Latin America criticised bourgeoisie and preached liberation theology- using religion to free people from oppression
feminism- religion as a force for change
Daly- goddess religions reject the patriarchy and create the ‘devine feminine’
Woodhead- growth of alternative forms of spirituality gives women more confidence and self esteem
Weber and Calvinism- religion as a force for change
study of ‘protestant work ethic and spirit of capitalism’- shows how religion can lead to change
development of Calvinism was highly influential in creation of modern capitalism due to idea of predestination- people contributing to society was a sign of being part of elite
Calvinist beliefs
god decides who enters heaven before birth
Devine transcendence- no individual has the power to rival God
Ascetism- followers should deny themselves all pleasure that distracts their faoth
devotion to work- only way to please God is to devote themselves to their work
Eisenstadt- Weber eval
capitalism occurred before in Catholic countries e.g. Italy before protestant reformation
MLK and Civil Rights- religion as force for change
aimed to end racial segregation- used religious institutions as a safe space, church offered moral guidance and peaceful protests which led to change
use of Christianity meant all christians found common ground- led to increased equality
Bruce- religion as a force for change
religion leads to social change depending on its actions and societies reaction to it
CR- change
NCR- no change
social change can lead to new religious change
Methodist church- result of Industrial Rev, movement from small close knit village communities to big urban city
Methodist meetings provided a renewed sense of community- appealed to WC
religious beliefs and practices change as society changes
urbanisation and globalisation- spread out communities and weakened bonds
globalisation- people with different religion all live in same area- so single unifying religion
decline in church attendance, increasing media- e.g. prayer groups
Wallis- social change leads to religious change
3 NRM (new religious movements)
formed as a result of marginality, relative deprivation, modernity and post modernity
world rejecting- total commitment
world affirming- self help or therapy
world accommodating- more traditionally religious
features of churches
large worldwide memberships
long life spans
professional clergy
multi layered hierarchy
linked to the state
features of denominations
relatively large memberships
tend to originate as a sect but become successful enough to evolve into a large movement
tend to be successful with poorer countries
WORLD ACCOMMODATING
features of sects
revolve around a charismatic leader
short life span especially if leader dies
small membership
majority of sects do not have professional clergy
demand total dedication from followers
can evolve into a denomination if they gain wider popularity
WORLD REJECTING
categories of NRM- Wallis
world accommodating (denominations)- not happy w/ world but make most of situation
world affirming (cults)- optimistic, enhance lives of followers
world rejecting (sects)- demand social change, disagree with state of world
Stark and Bainbridge- sectarian cycle (5 stages)
members of church break away from own movement
sect leaders establish their values which contradict with wider society
intensity of movement cools down overtime
sect becomes more accepting of world as it begins to compromise with wider society
some members who hold og belief become annoyed with movement so break way to form new sect
Stark and Bainbridge (forms of cults)
audience cults- transmit ideas through media to large audience, don’t need specific memberships
client cults- personal connection between leader and followers
cultic movements- specific commitment from client e.g. paying for causes
reasons for growth of NRM- Weber
response to marginalisation, secularisation, religious change and relative deprivation
NRM- attract people who feel as though they don’t belong to majority
Barker- NRM
relative deprivation- young MC feel neglected by career orientated parents and suffer from relative deprivation when comparing to peers who have strong connection w family
NRM- strong alternative to family due to strong commitment and community they create
Lyotard and Baumen (NRM)
reason for growth of NRM is movement into postmodern society
Wilson (NRM)
in times of rapid social change, individuals feel sense of confusion and anxiety this has led to an increase in appeal for NRM that cater to needs of individuals
features of cults
small memberships
consist of people with like minded world views
loose structure and no professional clergy
rarely demand strong commitments and focus on spiritual development
sometimes demand a fee
WORLD AFFIRMING
example of a cult
scientology
Lawes (social class)
lifelong theists tend to be from WC background whereas Atheists tend to be MC
Voas and Watt (social class)
churches that affiliate with successful schools tend to have higher attendance statistic
may be because attendance helps children enrol on school they prefer
church attendance doesn’t always correlate w beliefs
NRM
MC feel more attached to old school churches w hierarchy
WC like NRM which tend to have no hierarchy
new age movements
alternative to religion, self spirituality, customise individual experience
examples of new age movements
yoga, feng sui
Heelas et al (new age movements)
Kendal project- Kendal church attendance was double national average
NAM- reflected self interested nature of our society and are more relevant to contemporary individual
shows ‘subjectivisation’ of spiritual belief- individuals pick and choose elements of beliefs they want to adhere to
Modood et al (ethnicity)
ethnic minorities more likely to hold religious beliefs
Bruce (ethnicity)
cultural defence- ethnic groups protect its sense of identity and ethnic pride
cultural transition- use religion to cope with migration- become influenced by wider society and religious beliefs will decline
Voas and Crockett (age)
ageing effect- people turn to religion as they get older and approach death
generational effect- society becomes more secular, each generation is less religious
Mayo (age)
religion has become a personal choice- younger people feel less obliged to associate with religion
Beckford- Sunday schools are rarer in UK
Miller and Hoffman (Gender)
women are more likely to participate in religion
housewife- more time on hands
gender role socialisation- more nurturing, need more support which religion can offer
concern about risk of not being religious
Greely (gender)
more likely to become religious after childbirth- want to protect child and teach good values
seen as a good mother by community by successfully performing expressive role
Glock and Stark (gender)
women suffer deprivation- lack of status, low sense of worth and power in a person’s life leads them to search for it as comfort
Woodhead (gender)
due to progression in society Stark’s ideas are outdated
3 types of women in religious participation:
home centred- more time
work centred- less time
jugglers- balance it all
stats for how religion isn’t as prominent in society
2011- 60% in England were Christian
2021- less than 50%
Weber (secularisation)
enlightenment era has led to disenchantment of world as science has now become dominant religion
public no longer believe in sacred qualities of religion due to lack of evidence to support- desacralisation
Bruce (secularisation)
people now use religion for secular reasons
many people who affiliate themselves with religions may not actually believe in God
Bruce- 2 secular reasons for religion
cultural defence- groups turn to religion when they feel under attack or marginalised in society- religion offers some protection
cultural transition- may make individual feel as though they belong more to new community
Day (secularisation)
many claim to be christian in UK without holding any religious beliefs
natural christians- christened
ethnic christians- immigrants who want to belong to British culture
aspirational christians- those who want to seem moral and respectable e.g. mothers who want to be seen as a ‘good mother’
Berger (securlarisation)
secularisation is caused by diversity
catholic church had an absolute monopoly in middle ages and with reformations a number of religious organisations grew- all offering a different truth
religious diversity undermines religion’s plausibility structure
alternative versions of religion enable people to question all of them and erodes absolute certainties of traditional religion
cultural amnesia
children aren’t socialised into religion like their parents- matter of choice instead
Parsons (secularisation)
structural differentiation- church is much less important in people’s lives and religion becomes more of a personal choice rather than a necessity
led to privatisation of religion- cannot know as we cannot measure it
Wilson (secularisation)
close knit communities are broken up by individualisation and gloablisation- without this community structure- religion loses power over individuals
Davie (against secularisation)
no longer an obligation to go to church
true extent of beliefs are shown when disruptions to normality occur e.g. a natural disaster
Helland (against secularisation)
globalisation and media shape religious engagement
religion online- established religious movements use internet to communicate
online religion- unstructured format for likeminded people to discuss beliefs
Hadaway et al (secularisation America)
40% of Americans say they attend church however it was not the case, far lower attendance
Bruce (secularisation in America)
religion in America has become secularised from within
Christian churches have had to compromise their beliefs to remain popular, contemporary christianity about personal development rather than traditional beliefs
Norris and Inglehart (against secularisation)
Americans are more likely to be genuinely religious than European nations
Americans have less support from welfare state and lack access to effective free health care which may make them feel less secure in chances for survival
Stark and Bainbridge (against secularisation)
people are naturally religious and therefore there will always be a demand for some form of religion
all humans want big rewards for smallest costs- humans will make rational decisions about what benefits them most
believing in religion has small cost and barely any risk- promises possibility of great rewards
against secularisation
practices are changing not declining
religion is going through a renewal e.g. spiritual marketplace
Lyon- society is becoming reenchanted people have different new ways to be religious
fundamentalism
returning to basics of religion
believe exact wording of sacred texts- usually sects
attempt to shock population through extreme views or acts of terrorism
world rejecting stance often isolating themselves from mainstream society
cosmopolitanism
embraces modernity and globalisation
tolerant of different views and open to new ideas
asks to justify their views using rational arguments
lifestyle/spirituality is a personal choice emphasising self improvement
Giddens (fundamentalism)
gloabalisation has triggered a rise in fundamentalism due to promotion of cosmopolitanism
individuals with conservative values are feeling marginalised by a more liberal world view which seeks to undermine traditional assumptions
Castells (fundamentalism)
postmodernity has caused 2 different responses
‘resistance identity’- individual turns to fundamentalist movements to protect conservative values which are now under threat in cosmopolitan world
‘project identity’- attempt to embrace change by engaging with NAM
Bruce (fundamentalism)
caused by individuals feeling under threat to adopt different beliefs due to globalisation
Western Christian fundamentalism- Westboro Baptist church
Third World fundamentalism- Islamic state
Davie (fundamentalism)
not just in religion. Can be seen in increase of support for far right who ‘protect’ conservative values
Nanda (development)
Hinduism helped economic growth in India
globalisation has brought a wealth of opportunities to India- surge in global demand for industries India is engaged in
contemporary Hindu leaders encourage a progressive view- wealth seen as a sing of divine favour
Berger (development)
pentecostalism in South America has become strong rival to Catholicism encourages followers to work way out of poverty
stimulates economic growth as it inspires followers to adopt dedicated work ethic
Note
Flashcard