Beliefs in society

functionalism and religion

religion inhibits change and helps keep society as is, keeps social order

Durkheim

religion creates collective conscience through secondary socialisation

teaches followers norms and values of society, religion reinforces value consensus through creating social order

Durkheim case study

Aboriginals- religion based on totemism- symbol represents community which provides society with collective conscience

they renew N and V by going back to totem

Malinowski

religion provides society with psychological function when faced with life crises e.g. funeral

gives rite of passage and helps society return to normality as quick as possible- promotes stability and acts as a rite of passage

Malinowski study

Trobian Islanders- religious rituals when fishing in dangerous oceans but not in calm lagoon- religion helps in times of uncertainty

Parsons

religion maintains social order and value consensus

provides guidelines for human action through ‘core values’

Bellah

America have identified a civil religion as Americanism which unites society

they pray ‘god save America’ social cohesion, collective feeling generates order and stability

criticisms of functionalism

religion doesn’t always promote harmony- conflict between religions

ignores role religion can play in promoting social change

secularisation means religion performs less functions- less relevant

Marx

religion is used to exploit WC

religion benefits capitalism in 2 ways:

1. inequality is God given- therefore unchangeable
2. poverty is a test from God that will be compensated for in afterlife

proletariat- accept inequality and religion maintains FCC

evidence for Marx

industrial rev- christianity controls the workers- stay sober and work hard

Pharaohs- rulers and Gods- highlighting control

quote for religion- rich won’t make it to heaven, poor will

‘it is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter kingdom of heaven’

Marx quote

religion is the ‘opium of the people’- dulls pain through temp high

Lenin

Religion as spiritual gin- intoxicant that numbs pain of oppression

Marxism eval

fewer people go to a place of worship- if people don’t worship its hard for them to be duped by religious ideology

religion is also still strong in societies without oppression- Russia and eastern Europe had more religion that capitalist west in 20th century

feminist view of religion

religion is male dominated- God is man, sacred texts portray women negatively

women seen as temptresses of men- Eve and apple

De Beauvoir

religion tricks women into thinking they are equal in the eyes of God and they will be compensated for any hardship in afterlife

Armstrong

women are blocked from high positions in churches

CofE women cannot progress to top religious positions- same in many other religions

arguments against feminist view

bigger picture- other social and cultural influences which contribute towards creation of patriarchy

women also fight against the oppression e.g. women in Afghanistan under Taliban’s rule secretly educate girls

postmodernism

traditional religions have lost their significance in society and lack ability to encourage social stability or change

religion attempts to claim a monopoly of truth- impossible in postmodern world as there is no generalised truth in fragmented society

Hervieu Leger

religion’s reluctance to change has led to increasing unpopularity

post modern world- many alternate world views to compete with and this has led to cultural amnesia

Lyon

identities are fluent in postmodern world

individuals are constantly constructing new identities which has led to an emergence of a religious marketplace

religious leaders have turned to media in order to publicise their belief system to survive

religion as conservative

religious attitudes tend to be quite old fashioned e.g. Taliban

religion keeps things as they are- caste system in India prevails due to Hindu belief in reincarnation

view of marxists, feminist and functionalists

New Christian Right (religion not a force for change)

conservative fundamentalist movement- heavily critiqued by mainstream Americans because they oppose liberal views- challenge LGBTQ and abortion

Bruce suggests NCR will not achieve cultural change due to their unwillingness to cooperate with others

Iran- religion as a conservative force change

Islamic fundamentalists encourage social change- revolution against the Shah (who were beginning to make Iran more western)

everyone went back to Islamic customs

NM- religion conservative force for change

Bloch- religion acts as a principle of hope whereby people’s idea of heaven is attempted to be brought to reality, leading to positive- the dual character of religion

Maduro- Liberation theory- Catholic Priests in Latin America criticised bourgeoisie and preached liberation theology- using religion to free people from oppression

feminism- religion as a force for change

Daly- goddess religions reject the patriarchy and create the ‘devine feminine’

Woodhead- growth of alternative forms of spirituality gives women more confidence and self esteem

Weber and Calvinism- religion as a force for change

study of ‘protestant work ethic and spirit of capitalism’- shows how religion can lead to change

development of Calvinism was highly influential in creation of modern capitalism due to idea of predestination- people contributing to society was a sign of being part of elite

Calvinist beliefs

god decides who enters heaven before birth

Devine transcendence- no individual has the power to rival God

Ascetism- followers should deny themselves all pleasure that distracts their faoth

devotion to work- only way to please God is to devote themselves to their work

Eisenstadt- Weber eval

capitalism occurred before in Catholic countries e.g. Italy before protestant reformation

MLK and Civil Rights- religion as force for change

aimed to end racial segregation- used religious institutions as a safe space, church offered moral guidance and peaceful protests which led to change

use of Christianity meant all christians found common ground- led to increased equality

Bruce- religion as a force for change

religion leads to social change depending on its actions and societies reaction to it

CR- change

NCR- no change

social change can lead to new religious change

Methodist church- result of Industrial Rev, movement from small close knit village communities to big urban city

Methodist meetings provided a renewed sense of community- appealed to WC

religious beliefs and practices change as society changes

urbanisation and globalisation- spread out communities and weakened bonds

globalisation- people with different religion all live in same area- so single unifying religion

decline in church attendance, increasing media- e.g. prayer groups

Wallis- social change leads to religious change

3 NRM (new religious movements)

formed as a result of marginality, relative deprivation, modernity and post modernity

world rejecting- total commitment

world affirming- self help or therapy

world accommodating- more traditionally religious

features of churches

large worldwide memberships

long life spans

professional clergy

multi layered hierarchy

linked to the state

features of denominations

relatively large memberships

tend to originate as a sect but become successful enough to evolve into a large movement

tend to be successful with poorer countries

WORLD ACCOMMODATING

features of sects

revolve around a charismatic leader

short life span especially if leader dies

small membership

majority of sects do not have professional clergy

demand total dedication from followers

can evolve into a denomination if they gain wider popularity

WORLD REJECTING

categories of NRM- Wallis

world accommodating (denominations)- not happy w/ world but make most of situation

world affirming (cults)- optimistic, enhance lives of followers

world rejecting (sects)- demand social change, disagree with state of world

Stark and Bainbridge- sectarian cycle (5 stages)

members of church break away from own movement

sect leaders establish their values which contradict with wider society

intensity of movement cools down overtime

sect becomes more accepting of world as it begins to compromise with wider society

some members who hold og belief become annoyed with movement so break way to form new sect

Stark and Bainbridge (forms of cults)

audience cults- transmit ideas through media to large audience, don’t need specific memberships

client cults- personal connection between leader and followers

cultic movements- specific commitment from client e.g. paying for causes

reasons for growth of NRM- Weber

response to marginalisation, secularisation, religious change and relative deprivation

NRM- attract people who feel as though they don’t belong to majority

Barker- NRM

relative deprivation- young MC feel neglected by career orientated parents and suffer from relative deprivation when comparing to peers who have strong connection w family

NRM- strong alternative to family due to strong commitment and community they create

Lyotard and Baumen (NRM)

reason for growth of NRM is movement into postmodern society

Wilson (NRM)

in times of rapid social change, individuals feel sense of confusion and anxiety this has led to an increase in appeal for NRM that cater to needs of individuals

features of cults

small memberships

consist of people with like minded world views

loose structure and no professional clergy

rarely demand strong commitments and focus on spiritual development

sometimes demand a fee

WORLD AFFIRMING

example of a cult

scientology

Lawes (social class)

lifelong theists tend to be from WC background whereas Atheists tend to be MC

Voas and Watt (social class)

churches that affiliate with successful schools tend to have higher attendance statistic

may be because attendance helps children enrol on school they prefer

church attendance doesn’t always correlate w beliefs

NRM

MC feel more attached to old school churches w hierarchy

WC like NRM which tend to have no hierarchy

new age movements

alternative to religion, self spirituality, customise individual experience

examples of new age movements

yoga, feng sui

Heelas et al (new age movements)

Kendal project- Kendal church attendance was double national average

NAM- reflected self interested nature of our society and are more relevant to contemporary individual

shows ‘subjectivisation’ of spiritual belief- individuals pick and choose elements of beliefs they want to adhere to

Modood et al (ethnicity)

ethnic minorities more likely to hold religious beliefs

Bruce (ethnicity)

cultural defence- ethnic groups protect its sense of identity and ethnic pride

cultural transition- use religion to cope with migration- become influenced by wider society and religious beliefs will decline

Voas and Crockett (age)

ageing effect- people turn to religion as they get older and approach death

generational effect- society becomes more secular, each generation is less religious

Mayo (age)

religion has become a personal choice- younger people feel less obliged to associate with religion

Beckford- Sunday schools are rarer in UK

Miller and Hoffman (Gender)

women are more likely to participate in religion

housewife- more time on hands

gender role socialisation- more nurturing, need more support which religion can offer

concern about risk of not being religious

Greely (gender)

more likely to become religious after childbirth- want to protect child and teach good values

seen as a good mother by community by successfully performing expressive role

Glock and Stark (gender)

women suffer deprivation- lack of status, low sense of worth and power in a person’s life leads them to search for it as comfort

Woodhead (gender)

due to progression in society Stark’s ideas are outdated

3 types of women in religious participation:

home centred- more time

work centred- less time

jugglers- balance it all

stats for how religion isn’t as prominent in society

2011- 60% in England were Christian

2021- less than 50%

Weber (secularisation)

enlightenment era has led to disenchantment of world as science has now become dominant religion

public no longer believe in sacred qualities of religion due to lack of evidence to support- desacralisation

Bruce (secularisation)

people now use religion for secular reasons

many people who affiliate themselves with religions may not actually believe in God

Bruce- 2 secular reasons for religion

cultural defence- groups turn to religion when they feel under attack or marginalised in society- religion offers some protection

cultural transition- may make individual feel as though they belong more to new community

Day (secularisation)

many claim to be christian in UK without holding any religious beliefs

natural christians- christened

ethnic christians- immigrants who want to belong to British culture

aspirational christians- those who want to seem moral and respectable e.g. mothers who want to be seen as a ‘good mother’

Berger (securlarisation)

secularisation is caused by diversity

catholic church had an absolute monopoly in middle ages and with reformations a number of religious organisations grew- all offering a different truth

religious diversity undermines religion’s plausibility structure

alternative versions of religion enable people to question all of them and erodes absolute certainties of traditional religion

cultural amnesia

children aren’t socialised into religion like their parents- matter of choice instead

Parsons (secularisation)

structural differentiation- church is much less important in people’s lives and religion becomes more of a personal choice rather than a necessity

led to privatisation of religion- cannot know as we cannot measure it

Wilson (secularisation)

close knit communities are broken up by individualisation and gloablisation- without this community structure- religion loses power over individuals

Davie (against secularisation)

no longer an obligation to go to church

true extent of beliefs are shown when disruptions to normality occur e.g. a natural disaster

Helland (against secularisation)

globalisation and media shape religious engagement

religion online- established religious movements use internet to communicate

online religion- unstructured format for likeminded people to discuss beliefs

Hadaway et al (secularisation America)

40% of Americans say they attend church however it was not the case, far lower attendance

Bruce (secularisation in America)

religion in America has become secularised from within

Christian churches have had to compromise their beliefs to remain popular, contemporary christianity about personal development rather than traditional beliefs

Norris and Inglehart (against secularisation)

Americans are more likely to be genuinely religious than European nations

Americans have less support from welfare state and lack access to effective free health care which may make them feel less secure in chances for survival

Stark and Bainbridge (against secularisation)

people are naturally religious and therefore there will always be a demand for some form of religion

all humans want big rewards for smallest costs- humans will make rational decisions about what benefits them most

believing in religion has small cost and barely any risk- promises possibility of great rewards

against secularisation

practices are changing not declining

religion is going through a renewal e.g. spiritual marketplace

Lyon- society is becoming reenchanted people have different new ways to be religious

fundamentalism

returning to basics of religion

believe exact wording of sacred texts- usually sects

attempt to shock population through extreme views or acts of terrorism

world rejecting stance often isolating themselves from mainstream society

cosmopolitanism

embraces modernity and globalisation

tolerant of different views and open to new ideas

asks to justify their views using rational arguments

lifestyle/spirituality is a personal choice emphasising self improvement

Giddens (fundamentalism)

gloabalisation has triggered a rise in fundamentalism due to promotion of cosmopolitanism

individuals with conservative values are feeling marginalised by a more liberal world view which seeks to undermine traditional assumptions

Castells (fundamentalism)

postmodernity has caused 2 different responses

‘resistance identity’- individual turns to fundamentalist movements to protect conservative values which are now under threat in cosmopolitan world

‘project identity’- attempt to embrace change by engaging with NAM

Bruce (fundamentalism)

caused by individuals feeling under threat to adopt different beliefs due to globalisation

Western Christian fundamentalism- Westboro Baptist church

Third World fundamentalism- Islamic state

Davie (fundamentalism)

not just in religion. Can be seen in increase of support for far right who ‘protect’ conservative values

Nanda (development)

Hinduism helped economic growth in India

globalisation has brought a wealth of opportunities to India- surge in global demand for industries India is engaged in

contemporary Hindu leaders encourage a progressive view- wealth seen as a sing of divine favour

Berger (development)

pentecostalism in South America has become strong rival to Catholicism encourages followers to work way out of poverty

stimulates economic growth as it inspires followers to adopt dedicated work ethic