experiments/ self-report/ observations

field experiments

•Experiment happens in the participants natural environment

•The IV is still manipulated

•Participants are not always aware they are in an experiment

field experiment strengths

•Behaviour is likely to reflect the real world due to high ecological validity

•Low chance of demand characteristics as participants may be unaware they are in an experiment

field experiment weaknesses

•Difficult to control extraneous variables - low reliability

•Less replicable

•More difficult to establish cause and effect due to less control

•More ethical issues if the participants are unaware they are in an experiment (right to withdraw, informed consent)

lab experiments

•Artificial environment, eg lab

•Participants know they are in an experiment

•Highly controlled and standardised - to reduce extraneous variables

Lab experiment strengths

• high control -reduction of extraneous variables

•Ability to determine cause and effect

•Highly replicable - can increase certainty in findings

•Counterbalancing can reduce order effects

Lab experiments weaknesses

•Low ecological validity so participants behaviour may not represent real world behaviour

•High likelihood of demand characteristics

quasi experiments

•Experiment with a naturally occurring IV

•Can be conducted as a lab or field experiment

•Used when unethical/ impossible to manipulate IV

quasi experiment strengths

•Real world issues can be studied

•If conducted in the field, participants behaviour is lightly to be representative of real world

quasi experiments weaknesses

•only work when IV is naturally occurring

•Difficult to control extraneous variables

•Cause and effect is difficult to establish due to lack of manipulation of IV

•Can be extremely hard to replicate

matched pairs

Different sets of participants take part in each condition. They are matched with another participant in the other group based on shared characteristics

matched pairs strengths

•Reduced risk of demand characteristics

•Individual differences controlled

•No order effects

matched pairs weaknesses

•Matching people is time consuming

•Similarity is limited as not all shared characteristics are known

repeated measures design

The same group of participants take part in both conditions of an experiment

repeated measures strengths

•Unlikely that individual differences will interfere

•Order effects reduced if counterbalancing is used

•Fewer participants needed

•Researcher effects (eg subjectivity) can be reduced through blind trials

repeated measures weaknesses

•Order effects are still possible

•Risk of demand characteristics because participant does the study twice so may work out the aim

indipendent measures design

A different set of participants used for each condition

Different data in each condition (they all do the test once)

indipendent measures strengths

•No order effects

•Reduced risk of demand characteristics

•Possible to reduce effect of individual differences through random allocation

indipendent measures weaknesses

•Individual differences can negatively affect results if participants are not randomly allocated

More participants are needed

counter balancing

Participants are divided into conditions evenly and then do each condition in the opposite order to each other. This reduces order effects by evening out the results

covert observation

The role of the observer is hidden or disguised

covert observation strengths

•Less demand characteristics as participants do not know they are being watched

•Recording can be used for detailed and accurate records

covert observation weaknesses

•If the observer is suspected validity is compromised

•Lack of informed consent and right to withdraw

overt observation

The role of the observer is apparent

overt observation strengths

•More ethical as consent can be obtained and right to withdraw can be maintained

overt observation weaknesses

•Participants are aware they are being observed so demand characteristics may occur

structured observation

A structured observation is when the range of study is narrowed to a smaller set of clearly designed behaviour, usually developed in a pilot study

structured observation strengths

• operationalised definitions improves validity

•More likely to be reliable

•Improves inter-rater reliability

structured observation weaknesses

•simple definitions may be unclear - lowers validity

•Total numbers of behviour without context may be of little value

•Pre-determined categories may be limiting

unstructured observation

Recordings in the study are unfocused and so the observer looks at arrange of possible behaviours

unstructured observation strengths

•Data is richer as any relevant data can be recorded

•Gives a more complete picture of the situation

unstructured observation weaknesses

•Attempting to record everything may mean observers miss things

•Some data may be irrelevant

•Recordings could be inconsitant and subjective

non-participant observation

The observer is not part of the situation eg they watch through a one-way glass

non-participant observation strengths

•data recording equipment can be used so multiple observers can make accurate and detailed observations

•Observer can remain objective as they are not involved

non-participant observation weaknesses

•It may be hard to conceal the observer in a covert observation

•In a covert non-participant observation, there are ethical issues

participant observation

The observer is part of the situation eg in the room with the participants

participant observation strengths

•Being involved in the social group can give the observer insight into the real participants emotions and motives

•If unaware they are being observed, less likely to display demand characteristics or social desirability

participant observation weaknesses

•If Participant aware they are being observed their responses may not reflect real actions

•Being involved in the social group may make the observer subjective or biased

•With a hidden participant observer, there are ethical issues eg no informed consent or right to withdraw

naturalistic observation

When there is no manipulation or interference by the researcher

naturalistic observation strengths

•Ppts in their normal environment less likely to have demand characteristics

•Reactions can be observed in complex social settings

•Useful for collecting results in situations where manipulation would be unethical

naturalistic observation weaknesses

•Extraneous variables cannot be controlled so there is low validity

•Difficult to ensure validity of data collection (eg recording equipment would be obvious)

If the participants identify the observer's validity is compromised

controlled observation

When there has been some manipulation by the researcher

controlled observation strengths

•Data recording is likely to be reliable and researchers be obvious

•Extraneous variables can be controlled, resulting in High validity

•Greater range of behaviours can be explored

controlled observation weaknesses

•social situation is limited so cannot fully represent the reality of complex settings

•Participants in unfamiliar environment so many show demand characteristics

behavioural categories

A group of observable actions, not inferred internal states, which the researcher will look out for when conducting the observation eg smiling or laughing, but not happy

coding frames

Used to make the recording of behavioural categories easier

Uses abbreviations or "codes" to represent different behaviours. These can be explained using the operationalised definitions.

It also allows for other variables relating to the behaviour to be noted eg severity or duration.

Eg in a study investigating aggression

Hitting = H, biting = B, shouting = S and as each is recorded further details might be scored on a scale eg how loudly they shouted 1-5

event sampling

Data collection driven by the occurrence of, or changes in the events.