Anatomy exam chapters 1 - 4 mcgraw hill

What is anatomy?

study of structure

What is physiology?

Study of function

What is meant by the term homeostasis?

It is the ability of an organism to monitor conditions and maintain them

Negative feedback

The mechanism is used to maintain homeostasis primarily.

What happens if homeostasis is lost?

sickness - disease - death

Place in order, from simplest to most complex, the organization of the body.

Chemical Level

Cellular Level

Tissue Level

Organ Level

Organ system level

Organismal Level

integumentary system

Protects and regulates body temperature. Consists of the skin, mucous membranes, hair, and nail

skeletal system

Protects and supports body organs and provides a framework the muscles use to support movement. Made up of bones and joints

Muscular System

Consists of skeletal muscles, tendons that connect muscles to bones, and ligaments that attach bones together to form joint. Allows manipulation of the environment, movement, maintains posture, and produces heat.

nervous system

A conglomeration of billions of cells specifically designed to provide a communication network within the human body. Brain, spinal cord, peripheral and central nervous system

endocrine system

Consists of glands that control many of the body's activities by producing hormones such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells.

lymphatic system

Composed of a network of vessels, ducts, nodes, and organs. Provides defense against infection. Transports and filters lymph from the tissues into the blood.

cardiovascular system

The transport system of the body responsible for carrying oxygen and nutrients to the body and carrying away carbon dioxide and other wastes; composed of the heart, blood vessels, and blood.

digestive system

Breaks down food into smaller molecules. Absorbs these nutrients into the body. Oral cavity, liver, stomach, intestines

Respitory system

the organ system that brings oxygen to body cells and removes waste gas. Lungs, bronchi, trachea

urinary system

Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body. Regulates water and salt balance, electrolyte and acid-base balance of the blood.

reproductive system

Reproduce offspring- produce male sex cells and female sex cells

Atom

Basic unit of matter

Proton

A subatomic particle that has a positive charge and that is found in the nucleus of an atom

Electron

A subatomic particle that has a negative charge that orbits the nucleus of an atom

Neutron

A subatomic particle that has no charge and that is found in the nucleus of an atom

How is an atomic number determined?

By the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom determines an element's atomic number.

How is atomic mass determined?

By adding the numbers of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus.

Ions

positively or negatively charged atoms due to the loss or gain of one or more electrons.

Anion

a negatively charged ion due to gaining one or more electrons

Cation

A positively charged ion due to gaining one or more protons

Isotope

An atom with the same number of protons and a different number of neutrons from other atoms of the same element.

What are isotopes used for?

Unstable Isotopes undergo spontaneous decay where they emit radiation to achieve a stable state. Measuring the speed of decay allows scientists to date archaeological finds. Stable isotopes can be used to give a record of climate change. Isotopes are also commonly used in medical imaging and cancer treatment.

ionic bond

Formed when one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to another

convalent bond

A chemical bond formed when when atoms share electrons

hydrogen bond

weak attraction between a hydrogen atom and another atom. Attraction between a slightly positive hydrogen atom and a slightly negative atom.

polar molecule

molecule with an unequal distribution of charge, resulting in the molecule having a positive end and a negative end

nonpolar molecule

molecule that shares electrons equally and does not have oppositely charged ends

Phases of water

solid (ice), liquid (water), gas (water vapor)

Functions of water in the body

- Carries nutrients and waste products

- Lubricant between body structures

- Cushions and absorbs force of body movements

- Excretes waste

Properties of Water

cohesion - attraction between water molecules due to hydrogen bonding

surface tension - inward pulling of cohesive forces at surface of water - causes moist sacs of air in the lung to collapse

adhesion - attraction between water molecules and a substance other than water

Temperature

A measure of kinetic energy of atoms or molecules within a substance

specific heat

- The amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1 degree Celsius

- Water's value is extremely high due to the amount of energy needed to break hydrogen bonds and this helps keep body temperature regulated

heat of vaporization

- The amount of heat a liquid must absorb for 1g of it to be converted from the liquid to the gaseous state

- Water's value is extremely high due to the amount of energy needed to break hydrogen bonds

- When we sweat and the water evaporates excess heat dissipates

ph

a measure of hydrogen ion concentration, a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. The pH scale usually ranges from 0 to 14. Aqueous solutions at 25°C with a pH less than 7 are acids or acidic, while those with a pH greater than 7 are basic or alkaline.

Acid

A substance that increases the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution.

Base

A substance that decreases the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution.

How are salts formed?

When acids react with bases ( Neutralisation reaction)

Electrolyte

A substance that produces an electrically conducting solution when dissolved in a polar solvent, such as water. The dissolved electrolyte separates into cations and anions, which disperse uniformly through the solvent. Electrically, such a solution is neutral

Sodium, calcium, potassium, chloride, phosphate, and magnesium are all electrolytes (release ions in water)

organic molecules

- contain hydrogen and carbon

- usually larger than inorganic

- dissolve in water and organic lipids

- are carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids

inorganic molecules

- generally do not contain carbon

- usually smaller than organic molecules

- usually dissolve in water or react in water to release ions

- are water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and inorganic salts

Four major classes of macromolecules

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids

Carbohydrates function & building blocks

main source of energy & monosaccharides

Lipids function & building blocks

Energy-rich organic compounds, such as fats, oils, and waxes, that are made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen & glycerol and fatty acids

Monosaccharides

glucose, fructose, galactose

Proteins function & building blocks

Structure, storage, defense, transport, and speeding up reactions & amino acids

function of nucleic acids & building blocks

store and transmit genetic information & nucleotides

Nucleotide

A building block of DNA, consisting of a five-carbon sugar covalently bonded to a nitrogenous base and a phosphate group.

What are the 4 protein shapes?

primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary

primary protein structure

sequence of a chain of amino acids

secondary protein structure

hydrogen bonding of the peptide backbone causes the amino acids to fold into a repeating pleated pattern

tertiary structure

The third level of protein structure; three-dimensional shape of a polypeptide from protein chain due to hydrophobic interactions, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, and disulfide bridges; interactions of the R groups of the amino acids making up the chain.

protein shape

determines function, the more complex the structure = complexity of function from none - hair - muscle - hemoglobin

Metabolism

the combination of chemical reactions through which an organism builds up or breaks down materials

Anabolism

Constructive metabolism; the process of building up larger molecules from smaller ones. (hulk hogan)

Catabolism

Metabolic pathways that break down molecules, releasing energy.

condensation reaction

a chemical reaction in which two or more molecules combine to produce water or another simple molecule

decomposition reaction

a chemical reaction that occurs when a single compound breaks down into two or more elements or new, smaller compounds

exchange reaction

Chemical reaction in which bonds are both made and broken; atoms become combined with different atoms.

ATP

(adenosine triphosphate) main energy source that cells use for most of their work, 30 ATP made from 1 glucose

redox reactions (oxidation-reduction reactions)

electron transfers, oxidation being the loss of electrons and reduction being the gain of electrons (OIL RIG)

exergonic reaction

A spontaneous chemical reaction in which there is a net release of free energy.

endergonic reaction

A non-spontaneous chemical reaction in which free energy is absorbed from the surroundings.

Enzymes

Catalysts for chemical reactions in living things - speeds them up

Enzymes are composed of

amino acids = proteins

Factors that effect enzyme activity

more or less enzymes

temperature

ph

inhibitors

Inhibitor

A substance that slows down or stops a chemical reaction

Four steps of energy production

- Glycosis

- intermediate stage

- Citric acid cycle

- the electron transport system

Glycosis

first step in releasing the energy of glucose and occurs in the cytosol; in which a molecule of glucose is broken into two molecules of pyruvate molecules. making 2 ATP and 2 NADH per glucuse

intermediate stage energy production

occurs in mitochondria, pyruvate dehydrogenase converts pyruvate to acetyl CoA and releases 1 CO(2), 1 NADH is produced per pyruvate

occurs 1x per original glucose

Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)

occurs in mitochondria, breaks down acetyl and creates 1 ATP, 3 NADH & 1 FADH(2)

occurs 2x per original glucose

the electron transport system

Takes the electrons from NADH & FADH(2) to electron carriers in the electron transport chain of a mitochondria and O(2). The electron, hydrogen and oxygen ions form H(2)O. A H+ ion gradient is formed and an H+ ion flows down the gradient and the energy harnessed by ATP synthase to produce ATP through oxidative phosphorylation

Oxygen in Cellular Respiration

pyruvate oxidation, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation—require oxygen in order to occur. Only oxidative phosphorylation uses oxygen directly, but the other two stages can't run without oxidative phosphorylation.

cell membrane

thin, flexible barrier around a cell; regulates what enters and leaves the cell

Mitochondria

An organelle found in large numbers in most cells, in which the biochemical processes of respiration and energy production occur.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

System of internal membranes within the cytoplasm. Membranes are rough due to the presence of ribosomes. functions in transport of substances such as proteins within the cytoplasm

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

An endomembrane system where lipids are synthesized, calcium levels are regulated, and toxic substances are broken down.

Golgi apparatus

A system of membranes that modifies and packages proteins for export by the cell

Lysosomes

cell organelle filled with enzymes needed to break down food and worn out cell parts

Peroxisomes

break down fatty acids to be used for forming membranes and as fuel for respiration; and transfer hydrogen from compounds to oxygen to create hydrogen peroxide and then convert hydrogen peroxide into water.

Nucleolus

Found inside the nucleus and produces ribosomes

Chromatin

granular material visible within the nucleus; consists of DNA tightly coiled around proteins

Stages of the cell cycle

interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis

Interphase

Cell grows, performs its normal functions, and prepares for division

Prophase

first and longest phase of mitosis, during which the chromosomes become visible and the centrioles separate and take up positions on the opposite sides of the nucleus

Metaphase

second phase of mitosis, during which the chromosomes line up across the center of the cell

Anaphase

the third phase of mitosis, during which the chromosome pairs separate and move toward opposite poles

Telophase

the final phase of cell division, between anaphase and interphase, in which the chromatids or chromosomes move to opposite ends of the cell and two nuclei are formed.

Cytokinesis

division of the cytoplasm to form two separate daughter cells

Transcription

(genetics) the organic process whereby the DNA sequence in a gene is copied into mRNA

Translation

(genetics) the process whereby genetic information coded in messenger RNA directs the formation of a specific protein at a ribosome in the cytoplasm

DNA replication

DNA unzips into two parts and splits with the cell. In it's new home each side of the DNA strand attach to matching nucleotide to create 2 exact copies. It is important in puberty and other times of growth as it is the reproducing of your cells.

quaternary structure

The fourth level of protein structure; the shape resulting from the association of two or more polypeptide subunits.