Child Development - Chapter 1 - Santrock 16th ed

Cohort

A group of people born at a similar point in history who share similar experiences.

Cohort Effect

Differences in development caused by time of birth, era, or generation—not age.

Historical Context

Events or periods (e.g., Great Depression, 1990s) that shape a cohort's development.

Psychoanalytic Theory

Theory that development is primarily unconscious and influenced by emotion and early experiences.

Sigmund Freud

Founder of psychoanalytic theory; emphasized unconscious drives and early parent

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages

A sequence of stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) driven by sexual instincts.

Criticism of Freud

Overemphasized sex, hard to test scientifically, relied on retrospective accounts.

Erik Erikson

A neo

Psychosocial Theory (Erikson)

Eight stages where individuals face crises that must be resolved for healthy development.

Crisis (Erikson)

A turning point in development involving vulnerability and potential for growth.

Trust vs. Mistrust

First stage (infancy); success leads to hope and trust in the world.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Second stage (1–3 years); children assert independence or feel shame.

Initiative vs. Guilt

Third stage (preschool); children take initiative or develop guilt if made to feel irresponsible.

Contributions of Psychoanalytic Theories

Focus on early experiences, unconscious mind, family relationships, and developmental stages.

Criticisms of Psychoanalytic Theories

Not scientific, based on untestable concepts, overly negative, and culturally/gender biased.

Cognitive Theories

Theories focusing on conscious thoughts and understanding of the world.

Jean Piaget

Developed a theory of cognitive development with four qualitatively different stages.

Piaget’s Theory

Children actively construct knowledge through processes like organization and adaptation.

Organization (Piaget)

Grouping isolated behaviors and thoughts into a higher

Adaptation (Piaget)

Adjusting to new environmental demands.

Vygotsky’s Theory

Emphasized social interaction and culture as key to cognitive development.

Cultural Tools

Language, math systems, and strategies passed down within a culture.

Social Interaction (Vygotsky)

Essential for cognitive development; learning occurs through guided interactions.

Situated Knowledge

Knowledge constructed through interaction with others and the environment.

Information

Processing Theory

Computer Analogy

The brain is like hardware and cognition like software.

Behaviorism

The belief that psychology should study only observable behavior.

Ivan Pavlov

Discovered classical conditioning through experiments with dogs.

Classical Conditioning

Learning by association; a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful one.

John B. Watson

Promoted behaviorism as the science of observable behavior.

B.F. Skinner

Developed operant conditioning; behavior is shaped by consequences.

Operant Conditioning

Learning through rewards (reinforcements) and punishments.

Albert Bandura

Created the social cognitive theory, highlighting the role of observation and cognition.

Social Cognitive Theory

Emphasizes that behavior is influenced by environment, behavior, and cognition.

Observational Learning

Learning by watching others and imitating their behavior.

Ethology

Study of behavior tied to biology and evolution, emphasizing critical and sensitive periods.

Konrad Lorenz

Studied imprinting in geese to illustrate critical periods in development.

Imprinting

Rapid, innate learning within a critical period, such as a baby goose following its mother.

John Bowlby

Applied ethology to human development; early attachment to caregivers affects lifelong development.

Sensitive Period

A time when a particular experience has a strong effect on development.

Ecological Theory

Emphasizes the role of multiple environmental systems in development.

Microsystem

Immediate setting where a person lives (family, school, peers).

Mesosystem

Interconnections between microsystems (e.g., parent–teacher relationships).

Exosystem

Settings that indirectly influence the individual (e.g., parent's workplace).

Macrosystem

The broader culture and societal norms that influence development.

Chronosystem

Historical time and life events that influence development (e.g., divorce, pandemics).

Scientific Observation

Systematic recording of behavior in specific settings.

Laboratory Observation

Controlled environment to eliminate outside variables.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing people in real

Case Study

In

Correlational Research

Examines relationships between variables without manipulation.

Correlation Coefficient

A number from

"Correlation Does Not Equal Causation"

Just because two variables are related doesn’t mean one causes the other.

Experimental Research

Manipulating variables to test cause

Independent Variable

The variable that is changed to test its effects.

Dependent Variable

The outcome measured to assess the effect of the independent variable.

Random Assignment

Participants are placed in groups by chance to prevent bias.

Cross

Sectional Study

Longitudinal Study

Research that studies the same individuals over a long period.

Attrition

When participants drop out of a study over time, possibly biasing the results.

Cohort Effects (in research)

Differences due to era of birth that may confound age

Ethics

Moral standards guiding research to protect participants.

APA Ethics Code

Guidelines by the American Psychological Association to protect research participants.

Informed Consent

Participants must be informed about the study and can withdraw at any time.

Confidentiality

Keeping participant data private and anonymous when possible.

Debriefing

Informing participants about the study’s purpose after it concludes.

Deception

Withholding information from participants; allowed only if it doesn't harm them and they are debriefed afterward.

IRB (Institutional Review Board)

A committee that evaluates and approves ethical research proposals.