REGENERATION

Geog year 1

Regeneration

Redeveloping former industrial areas/ outdated housing to bring about economic and social change. Regeneration plans focus on the fabric of a place: new buildings and spaces with new purposes.

Rebranding

Ways in which a place is deliberately reinvented for economic reasons, then marketed using its new identity to attract new investors.

The decline in the primary and secondary sectors:

(The old economy)

TIn the 1980s, the conservative government planned changes to the UK economy- often called the old economy.

Goods produced by primary (eg/coal mining) and secondary (manufacturing) industries in the UK were often more expensive than the equivalent goods produced overseas. Reasons for this were:

• British coal was located further below ground and was more expensive to mine.

• UK wages were often higher than those overseas (growth of manufacturing in Asia, with its cheaper labour costs, led to cheap imported goods).

Large numbers of UK mines and manufacturing plants closed during the 1980s, creating derelict land. The closures particularly affected Northern England, The Midlands, Wales and Scotland (where unemployment soared).

Growth of tertiary and Quaternary Sectors:

(the new economy)

To replace lost jobs in the primary and secondary sectors, the government encouraged the growth of a new post-industrial economy- the new economy. This growth took place in the:

• TERTIARY SECTOR, particularly tourism and retail. These areas grew because of higher incomes, cheaper air travel and increased car ownership. Some parts of the UK sought to rebrand their past to create a new image. But, unlike former industrial jobs, these new jobs are seasonal, and often low paid and part time.

  • QUATERNARY SECTOR, which has shown the fastest growth. This is normally called the knowledge economy, and it provides highly specialised jobs that use expertise in fields such a finance, law and IT. The biggest of these fields is banking and finance; international banks in London generate great wealth.

Extra info: Quaternary Industries

Quaternary Industries can locate anywhere, so they’re described as ‘footloose’. Their locations are often chosen according to financial incentives (eg/ low tax rates) and connectivity (good transport links and superfast broadband).

Growth in the Quaternary sector is concentrated in London’s docklands. Quaternary salaries are much higher than average, so divisions in wealth between the North and South of the UK have widened.

Socio- economic inequalities:

1)Regional inequalities

Incomes vary regionally. Incomes in London are the highest because:

It is the Capital, so incomes are higher in senior governmental positions and major company headquarters.

Those who work in the Docklands-based knowledge economy have higher wages than average.

Socio- economic inequalities:

Variations in employment

London has the highest % of students with GCSE passes and adults with a university degree.

This relationship is linked with employment - those with higher qualifications are more likely to live in London/ move there-- Then their children are more likely to pass GCSEs with high grades as a result of paid extra tuition, or a culture of doing homework.

Re-imaging

How the image of a place is changed, eg/ changing how its portrayed in the media. This term is used by those in charge of regeneration and rebranding, and also by tourist agencies when developing new images of particular places.

Agriculture Based Regeneration

The focus of regeneration is to help local farms produce extra revenue such as creating farm shops, building the reputation of local produce and starting local farm attractions (mazes, muddy assault courses, tractor trailer rides etc.)

1)Accessibility

2)Amenity Value

3)Built Environment

4)Capital

1)How easy it is to travel to a place or interact with an individual.

2)The value of a resource to locals and businesses (beaches, timber, coal).

3)The buildings and infrastructure within an urban area.

4)Productive assets, goods or financial stakes.

1)Central Business District (CBD)

2)Council Estate

3)Counter Urbanisation

4)Cultural Enrichment

1)The centre of a city, containing a high density of businesses and TNC Headquarters

2)Consisting only of social housing, with tenants on subsidised rent.

3)An increase in the proportion of a population living within rural areas, due to migration from urban to rural regions.

4)The addition of ideas, traditions and beliefs due to the arrival of new people.

1)Cultural erosion

2)Culture

3)Degeneration

4)Deindustrialisation

1)The loss of a culture, resulting in a change in ideas or disregard for traditions.

2)The way of life of a particular group of people at a particular time, generally customs and beliefs

3)The decline of a region over time, due to insufficient funds, outward migration and declining quality of life for residents.

4)- A reduction in industrial capacity, leading to social and economic change within a region.

1)Demographic

2)Deprivation

3)Dereliction

4)Diversity

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1)The characteristics of a population

2)- Individuals’ lack basic services or objects they would expect to have in the 21st century

3)The loss of industry or productivity of a land, leaving it abandoned.

4)Variation within a population, in their characteristics, background and behaviour.

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1)Environmental Impact Assessment

2)Environmental Regeneration

3)Ethnicity

4)Gated communities

1)The study of environmental impacts caused by large business projects.

2)The focus of regeneration is to restore and maintain natural environments such as woodlands, beaches and national parks.

3)The cultural background of a group of people, often based on religion or country of origin.

4)Urban neighbourhoods surrounded by gates often to improve privacy and safety. They can add to segregation within a community.

Gentrification

Gentrification is a change in the social structure of a place when affluent people move into a location. Planners may allow developers to upgrade a place's characteristics, residential and retail to deliberately attract people of a higher social status and income. 

1)Governance

2)Hard regeneration

3)Idyll

4)Inequality

5)Internal Migration

1)The management of a place or a group of people.

2)Construction of new buildings, infrastructure and investment within a region.

3)A location with ideal living conditions and good qualities. Often based on a perception.

4)Differences in income, well-being and wealth between individuals, communities and society.

5)The movement of people within a country

1)International migration

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1)The movement of people from one country to another.

1)Lived experience

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2)Multicultural

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3)Perception

1)The contribution of experiences and opportunities to an individual’s views and values.

2)The existence, acceptance or promotion of multiple cultural traditions within a single geographic area.

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3)A person’s view of a place or issue based on feelings, experience and outside forces such as the media.

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1)Political engagement

2)Pressure groups

3)Population density

4)Regional disparity

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1)The willingness and ability of an individual to vote or join political parties or pressure groups.

2)Usually voluntary organisations, with the aim of persuading the public and changing government policy or authorities actions.

3)The number of people per square kilometre.

4)The economic (or cultural) gap between different parts of a country.

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1)Segregation

2)Sink estates

3)Spiral of Decline

1)The separation of a group from other groups this can be through force or voluntarily. Segregation can often occur due to housing strategies or regeneration projects.

2)Council estates that score badly on the Index of Multiple Deprivation.

3)Stages of rural decline that contribute to a positive feedback loop, with more and more outward migration and increasingly declining services.

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2)Stakeholder

3)Social Clustering

4)Social exclusion

5)Soft regeneration

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2)An individual with interest and influence within their community (residents, local businesses, farmers, NGOs).

3)Groups of people with similar background frequently living together.

4)The inability of a group of people to become involved in the cultural activities of a place.

5)Investing in the skills and education of the population to improve their own quality of life.

Urban Resurgence

Also known as re-urbanisation, urban resurgence is the movement of people back to an area which was previously in decline. This influx of people and investment further improves the social, economic and environmental conditions of urban areas.

Economies

PART 1

➔ Changes to economies and societies occur due to local, national and global processes such as the movement of people, capital, information and resources. An abundance of these factors can make places become economically wealthy whilst other places are marginalised.

➔ Economic activity can be classified by sector and by type.

Economies

PART2

➔ Places vary according to their economic activity which can be analysed using employment data and output data.

➔ Differences in economic activity occur from variations in social factors, such as health, life expectancy and education levels, determining a person’s ability to work.

➔ Inequalities in pay levels are reflected in quality of life indices. Families with a low income are ranked to have a lower quality of life than richer families.

Function and Characteristics of Places

PART 1

➔ As places develop, functions and demographic characteristics change. Overtime, employment may change between administration, commercial, retail or industry whilst age structures and ethnic compositions alter demographics.

result of demographic characteristic change, connectivity, physical changes, gentrification etc.

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Past and Present Connections

➔ Regional and national influences shape characteristics of places and this can be viewed visually by images, either contrasting two places or tracking before/after changes in one place.

➔ International and global influences can also shape places e.g. demographics may change if there is free movement of migration. Demographics can be analysed statistically and presented using graphs. Changes to an area can affect the lives of people and work to shape their identity, analysed through questionnaires/interviews.

Regeneration Purpose

(Economic and social inequalities)

➔ Regeneration is done to create a balance and eradicate social and economic inequalities. By regenerating an area, business opportunities arise which improve social facilities and overall quality of life and wellbeing.

➔ There are priorities for regeneration due to the large variations in economic and social inequalities. Gated communities, ‘sink estates’, commuter villages and declining rural settlements are high priority areas.

Regeneration purpose

Engagement and Experience of a Place

PART 1

➔ There are also variations in the level of community engagement. This is measured through local and nation election attendance, the number of community activities and the number of developed and supported local community groups. If an areas is said to be more deprived, it will have a weaker and poorly integrated community. This can be managed by creating social groups and encouraging members to join.

➔ The lived experience and attachment of places varies according to: Age ,Gender, Ethnicity, Length of residence , Levels of Deprivation & Economic Background.

Regeneration Purpose

Engagement and Experience of a place

PART 2

➔ These factors in turn impact on levels of engagement and community involvement.

➔ Conflicts can occur between different groups in communities who have contrasting views on priorities and strategies for regeneration. The causes to these conflicts can be due to the lack of political engagement and representation, ethnic tensions, inequality and lack of economic opportunity.

Management & Governance of Regeneration

The Role of UK Government Policies (3)

➔ By investing in infrastructure, such as high speed rails and airport developments, UK governments can maintain growth and improve accessibility to regenerate regions.

➔ Government actions may prioritise national over local needs and opinions which can delay regeneration projects and thus worsen inequalities.

➔ UK government decisions about international migration and the deregulation of capital markets (allowing for foreign investment in London real estate) significantly impact growth and direct/indirect investment.

Management & Governance of Regeneration

Local government policies

PART 1

➔ Local governments compete to create business environments with designated areas for development to attract domestic and foreign investors.

➔ Local interest groups are vital in decision-making and creating regeneration projects. However, there is often conflict between these groups as interests differ.

Management & Governance of Regeneration

Local government policies

PART 2

➔ Urban and rural regeneration strategies include:

o Retail-led Plans: Creates business and job opportunities.

o Tourism: Brings money into the area and provides a flow of culture and positive media attention.

o Leisure and Sport: Allows for community integration and social wellbeing.

Management & Governance of Regeneration

Changing Public Perception

➔ Rebranding attempts to represent areas as being more attractive by improving public perception of them. This works to invite investors which add to the wealth of the area.

➔ For UK deindustrialised cities, rebranding can stress the attraction of places, creating an identity by focusing on their industrial heritage. This creates national and international tourists and visitors whilst providing local income and media coverage.

➔ Rural rebranding strategies in the post-production countryside are based on farm diversification, specialised products, outdoor pursuits and adventure in both accessible and remote areas. This again invites tourism, particular sites being the Brontë country and the Kielder Forest.

Measuring Success of Regeneration

PART 1 Economic

➔ The success of economic regeneration can be assessed using measures of:

- Income

- Poverty

- Employment

Measuring Success of Regeneration

PART 2 SOCIAL

➔ reductions in inequalities between and within areas.measured through the multiple deprivation index and in demographic changes =life expectancy improvements, population growth and reductions in health deprivation.

➔ Regeneration will be most successful if it also leads to improvements in the living environment as this in turn improves social and economic security. Improvements can be monitored through reductions in pollution levels and the number of abandoned and derelict warehouses/land.

Types of places

Near and Far places

• Near Places: Close.+ subjective. A woman living in the Australian outback may consider a place that is 100km away to be near, due to the ability to directly drive between settlements across the outback. In the UK a place that is 100km away may be considered as a far place

• Far Places: Distant . Some people may get ‘homesick’ if they are staying away for the first time in their lives even if they are only ten minutes drive away. They may feel ‘far’ away emotionally, even if they are physically close

Types of places

Experienced and Media places

• Experienced Places: Places that we have actually visited. Some people would argue that you have to visit a place to create an emotional attachment to it. Others would suggest that a desire to visit a place or dislike towards it because of what you have seen through the media, is enough to create an emotional attachment

• Media Places: Places we have not visited, but may have learned about through media representations. For example, the musician ‘Vancouver Sleep Clinic’ chose his artist name because he had experienced Vancouver as a media place and thought ‘it looks like a beautiful place’.

Functions of a location (4)

-Administrative - Places that make decisions about how to organise infrastructure and economic activity for the surrounding areas. Administrative places tend to be cities and town that influence the borough/region surrounding them, for example Manchester’s influence in the North West or London’s influence over the South-East.

● Commercial - A location with strong business influence; many TNCs may have bases here and there is a large volume of small and large scale businesses.

● Retail - A town or city with attractive retail facilities

● Industrial - A location whose economy and reputation is predominantly based on its industrial capacity. For example, Birmingham was historically known as the Black Country, for its large industries of iron & steel works (the name is based on the smoke industries produced!).

Factors contributing to a feeling of belonging (insiders and outsiders)

• People who do not belong to the main ethnic group of a community feel like outsiders- unaccustomed to the culture, social norms and dialect of the majority of the community.

• These feelings of unfamiliarity may change in the long-term. As the family get used to living in that place and integrate into society they can feel like insiders. In the UK there is a pattern whereby ethnic groups cluster in certain areas, potentially because people feel more at home surrounded by other people sharing the same ethnicity. The clustering means that the area will adapt towards that culture over time, which may attract more people from that ethnicity to move there.

The Clarke-Fisher model

=the stages a country may progress through as they become more economically developed.

1-Pre-industrial: The majority of the population work in the primary sector, with a small percentage of the total population employed in the secondary industry. This may be due to a lack of infrastructure or investment preventing a country from constructing factories and establishing manufacturing industry.

2-Industrial stage: The proportion of employees in the primary sector may begin to decline as land is taken up by manufacturing and imports become more feasible. During these periods of time, internal rural - urban migration may occur, as families seek a better quality of life by earning a secondary job.

3- Post-industrial stage: After a country industrialises, the proportion of people working in the primary sector decreases significantly. Secondary jobs also decline but at a much slower rate. However, there is a big increase in the number of people in the tertiary and quaternary industry, as demand for entertainment, holidays and technology increases with an individual’s disposable income.

PLACE CHARACTER

(Endogenous factors)

Endogenous Factors: Those which originate from within the place and are local:

● Land Use

● Topography

● Physical Geography

● Infrastructure →○ Roads, railways, canals, airports ○ Broadband and phone networks, water supply, sewers and electrical grids ○ Parks, public pools, schools, hospitals, libraries ○ Education system, health care provision, local government, law enforcement, emergency services

● Demographic Characteristics

PLACE CHARACTER

Exogenous factors

Those which originate from outside a place and provide linkages and relationships with and to other places. Exogenous factors are commonly referred to as flows of:

● People

● Money and Investment

● Resources

● Ideas

Measuring change

The index of multiple deprivation

The Index of Multiple Deprivation measures: Income, Employment, Education, Health, Crime, Barrier to Housing and Services, Living Environment. An increase in the IoMD score could be an improvement of one of these factors, or a combination of factors.

inequalities can be caused by different factors:

● Occupational Hazards

● Income

● Life Expectancy and General Health : ○ Type of Employment ○ Affordability of food ○ Stereotypical Lifestyles

● Educational Achievement

Examples of infrastructure projects in the UK

- HS2 =proposed high speed rail network which would connect London to Birmingham. The project is expected to cost £43 billion, but so far gone over budget. It’s aim is to reduce travel times and improve connectivity between the North and South of England. An estimated 60,000 jobs are expected to be created.

- Expansion of Heathrow Airport (3rd runway) is expected to cost around £20 billion (privately funded, potentially creating 70,000 jobs). Many MPs, local residents and environmental NGOs oppose the project as it will increase traffic travelling through Heathrow and pollution.

Housing - Gentrification in the Inner City

Benefits of gentrification and high-value properties has encouraged more inner-city development projects by constructors. The high cost of clearing and preparing brownfield sites (land already used for residential or industrial purposes) can be compensated by building high-value apartments- Aiming to attract wealthy investors who might spend their money locally or establish business here. Local governments rely on ‘trickle-down’ theory for the benefits of gentrification:

➔ The investor will spend money in services and local businesses, who directly benefit from increased sales.

➔ The workers may spend their increased disposable income on other local businesses, therefore increased revenue may be shared between multiple businesses.

➔ Both the investor and businesses will pay more tax, so the local council can spend more on services, from which everyone in the local area benefits.

Rural Regeneration examples:

Eden project

● The Eden Project - The Eden Project is a sustainable development in Cornwall with the aim of attracting tourists and providing employment and economic opportunities for local Cornish businesses. Built from an abandoned clay pit, the Eden Project has contributed £700 million in local economic growth and provides renewable geothermal energy for 7000 local homes.

CASE STUDY:

Middlesbrough PART 1 (Problems)

* Middlesbrough has suffered with the consequences of deindustrialisation since the 1980s. Around 20,000 people have left the town since 1990. The 2008 Global recession worsened the decline: many remaining small scale businesses and services were forced to close as no. of customers decreased.
* The local unemployment rate is almost twice the national average(13%), and in 30% of the town’s working-age households, there is nobody in paid employment. The income of local residents has plummeted, removing their ability to change jobs or move house.
* Middlesbrough contains some of the most deprived wards in the UK, With 10% in the bottom 1% of deprived areas in England. Average house prices in the North Ormesby dropped to £57,000 in March 2015 (compared to a UK average of £180,000. Life expectancy is lower than in the rest of the UK.

CASE STUDY

Middlesbrough part 2 (effect on built environment)

* High levels of anti-social behaviour and the cost of tackling fly tipping has been rising by 10% per year. Dumping of waste affects quality of life and creates health and safety problems. The lack of opportunities has lowered motivations for academic achievement: An Ofsted report in 2014 found that 1/3 of pupils (and half of secondary school students) attend schools that are ‘requires improvement’.
* All these changes put off owner occupiers, who would choose somewhere else to live.
* The council’s regeneration team have been working on a number of projects to improve the area and the local standard of housing. However, in times of financial difficulty and reductions in welfare spending, a continued spiral of economic and social decline may be likely unless private investment responds to government initiatives.

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CASE STUDY

Middlesbrough part 3 (reasoning for deprivation/decline)

Ironstone deposits were discovered in the Eston Hills in 1842= the town was made prosperous by its natural resources and location.

By 1860 its population had increased to 20,000. By the 20th Century, there were 90,000 people there, increasing to 160,000 by the 1970s. And there was work for all who wanted it.

Long, slow industrial decline and the closure of processing plants left swathes of people out of work and Middlesbrough with high levels of unemployment and poverty.

Cumulative causation

The idea that one initial economic change (+/-) can lead to a range of other changes to follow.

CASE STUDY:

Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park

(Location and need for regeneration)

Stratford: One of the most deprived areas in England due to deindustrialisation after the industrial revolution (global shift).

CASE STUDY:

Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park

(Benefits of the scheme)

ECONOMIC:

* £180 million was invested into the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park (expectation of attracting 1.5 million additional visitors to London and producing $3.5 billion worth of economic value to Stratford)
* brought 25,000 jobs to the area = More disposable income

SPORT AND EDUCATION:

* After the games, the London Aquatics Centre was made accessible and affordable for the public to use.
* The Olympic Stadium was redeveloped to facilitate school sport events and some ticketed events.

SOCIAL:
* Chobham Academy (school) was able to open in the East Village.

CASE STUDY:

Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park

Challenges

ECONOMIC:

The 2012 Summer Olympics and Paralympics were obscenely expensive - The Olympic Stadium was estimated to cost £701 million, around three times the original estimate.

->This angered the public (the money was generated from taxpayers).

SPORT AND EDUCATION:

•The Olympic Stadium is home West Ham United F.C. (costing Londoners 8 to £10 million a year)

-The stadium lost value by £381 million between 2014 and 2020 and cannot make a profit as estimated

SOCIAL:

• Businesses and people were relocated to make space for the Olympic Park(425 residents of the Clays Lane Estate, a housing estate that was demolished to make way for the park).

• During the construction of the park, not many jobs went to the local residents, and there were still high unemployment rates in the area. --The construction jobs were only temporary, meaning that once the park was rebuilt, the workers would be left potentially unemployed again.

CASE STUDY:

Docklands regeneration

• Potential recognised- 21km2 of available building land close to Central London. The LDDC (London Docklands Development Corporation) was formed in 1981 with a focus to encourage growth

  • the process of regeneration was known as ‘market-led regeneration’- leaving the private sector (the free market) to make decisions about the future of the docklands. The LDDC was given planning powers that they passed to local councils in Newham, Tower Hamlets and Greenwich. As long as planning permission was granted by 1991, companies could obtain tax breaks on new buildings- these tax incentives were designed to attract investors

CASE STUDY

London Docklands

Economic growth, infrastructure and housing

* ECONOMIC GROWTH: The LDDC’s flagship project was Canary Wharf, now London’s second business district. Huge transformation in land use and employment (high rise buildings designed to stimulate the quaternary sector replaced docks and industry).


* Now, companies in Canary Wharf include investment banks and companies in the knowledge economy. Every day 100,000 commuters travel there. Employment has grown (not one of the most deprived areas anymore) but poverty is still present - In 2012, 27% of Newham’s working population earned less than £7 an hour (highest % of any London borough).
* INFRASTRUCTURE: New transport developments (extending the Jubilee line inn the London underground, developing the docklands light railway- a surface light rail network covering most of the docklands, building new roads and creating London City Airport -5km from Canary Wharf).
* POPULATION AND HOUSING:Many older people have moved out, replaced by a much younger generation (average age in Newham was 31 in 2011, compared to a UK average of 40). Gentrification-- properties have become more desirable and expensive.

CASE STUDY:

Bristol Harbourside -- reasoning for terminal decline and the result

\-The arrival of larger cargo ships that could no longer navigate the Avon River and new competition from Avonmouth and Portbury.

=The closure of several industries including many tobacco factories, lead works and the sand dredging industry. This resulted in several empty but listed buildings which ran their land couldn't be used for other purposes. \n The left Bristol's Harbourside plagued with many problems such as growing social and economic inequalities and vast areas of derelict land and increasing unemployment levels.

CASE STUDY:

Bristol Harbourside--Initial redevelopment scheme and finance+ other improvements

\-The first development involved the SS Great Britain being returned to Bristol for restoration to attract large numbers of visitors and tourists. Lloyds TSB also relocated their headquarters to the dock land area (previous brownfield derelict site) which acted as a great spur for investment.

\-A mixture of private and public funding. It also received a substantial amount of funding from the national lottery.

\-Over the past thirty years the area has undergone multiple major changes including a new IMAX theatre, the We Are The Curious Museum (@Bristol) and Millennium Square. It is was regarded as one of the largest redevelopment projects in Europe as of 2000.

CASE STUDY:

Bristol Harbourside- Successes

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\- Over £300 million in inward investment& Over 3000 new jobs

\- A mixed commercial environment including bars, cafes restaurants cinemas and shops

* Preservation and utilisation of listed buildings. (eg/Watershed media centre which was formerly two warehouses).

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CASE STUDY:

Bristol Harbourside- Failures

\- Concerns on how the area would fare during a recession especially as it is so dependent on entertainment - one of the first things to have a fall in demand if incomes fell

- Some features have done little to improve traffic flow and have in some ways worsened it

- New housing is very expensive - it could be argued that there was a real need for cheap social housing.

CASE STUDY:

‘successful places’-SYDNEY

• Sydney is part of an economically successful region along Australia’s South-east coast, stretching 2000km from Brisbane to Melbourne-- This region’s cities has a high proportion of high-income jobs in the ‘knowledge economy’.

• Sydney’s economy is like that of other World cities with strengths in the quaternary sector. Its gross domestic product was US$337 billion in 2013- Australia’s largest. Most ‘knowledge economy’ employers are ‘footloose’-they’re not tied to raw materials, so they can locate anywhere. Sydney also attracts business partly due to its beaches, harbour environment and climate. Its time zone also allows for trading in the USA and Europe-essential for investment banks.

• Since1985, Australia’s national governments have embraced globalisation by: deregulating banking and finance (allowing any overseas bank to operate there)+ focusing on the country’s inwards migration policy on well-qualified professionals.

• Australia’s average income is higher than the UK -- adult salaries in 2015 averaged AUS$82,000 a year. The average income in Sydney is the world’s 7th highest of any city, but it is also very expensive to live there. Because of demand, property in Sydney is extremely expensive . However, it does also rank 10th in the world for quality of life.

Newquay aerohub

* In 2014, Cornwall council obtained Enterprise zone status for Newquay Aerohub Business park (next to Newquay airport).The Aerohub is a partnership between Cornwall Council and private-sector investors, who are aiming to begin the process of diversifying (broadening)Cornwall’s economy away from its dependence on tourism. The new business Park’s ‘brand’ is its location, which aims to attract investment for an aviation and aerospace hub (or focus). It was hoped that 700 high-value, skilled permanent jobs would be generated there is the first year.
* Companies located there inc. Agustawestland (flight training centre), Skybus (passenger flights from Cornwall to isles of Scilly), Cornwall aviation heritage centre etc.
* By the end of 2015, only 450 jobs were created and very few of these were ‘new’ jobs-- Many of the companies have just ‘displaced’ jobs from the public sector to the private sector.