Unit 1 Key Terms

Aerobic Metabolism

Energy production in cells using oxygen, resulting in more energy (ATP) essential for cell functions.

Anaerobic Metabolism

Energy production in cells without oxygen, less efficient and produces lactic acid, leading to muscle fatigue.

Autolysis

The process where a cell breaks itself down using its own enzymes, usually when dying.

Cellular Dehydration

When a cell loses excessive water, causing it to shrink and impair its function.

Cellular Edema

When a cell swells due to excessive water intake, potentially leading to malfunction or bursting.

Cellular Hypoxia

A condition where a cell does not receive enough oxygen, causing impaired function and possible cell death.

Codon

A sequence of three DNA or RNA bases coding for a specific amino acid in protein synthesis.

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

The molecule that carries genetic information necessary for cell growth, function, and reproduction.

Free Radicals

Unstable molecules that can damage cells, proteins, and DNA, often contributing to aging or disease.

Glycoproteins

Proteins with sugar molecules attached, involved in cell signaling and immune responses.

Heterolysis

The immune system's process of breaking down foreign materials or pathogens, like bacteria.

Lysosomes

Cell organelles containing digestive enzymes that break down waste or damaged cell parts.

Mitochondria

Organelles that generate energy (ATP) and help control cell death.

Na+/K+ Pump (Sodium-Potassium Pump)

A cell membrane protein that moves sodium out and potassium into the cell, maintaining fluid and ion balance.

Nucleotide

The building blocks of DNA and RNA, consisting of a sugar, a phosphate, and a nitrogen base.

Plasma Membrane

The outer boundary of the cell that regulates what enters and leaves.

Purine Base

A type of nitrogenous base in DNA and RNA, examples include adenine and guanine.

Pyrimidine Base

Another type of nitrogenous base in DNA and RNA, including cytosine, thymine, and uracil.

Ribosomes

Tiny cell structures that synthesize proteins by reading mRNA and assembling amino acids.

Transcription

The process of making an RNA copy of a segment of DNA used for protein synthesis.

Translation

The process of building a protein by reading the RNA code at the ribosome.

Aneurysm

An abnormal bulge in the wall of a blood vessel due to weakness or damage.

Angiogenesis

The formation of new blood vessels from existing ones, vital for tissue growth and healing.

Apoptosis

Programmed cell death occurring in a regulated manner to remove damaged or unnecessary cells.

Atherogenesis

The formation of atherosclerotic plaques in arteries, causing narrowing and hardening.

Atrophy

The decrease in size or function of a cell, tissue, or organ due to lack of use, aging, or disease.

Benign

A description of a non-cancerous, slow-growing tumor that does not spread.

Biopsy

The removal and examination of tissue from the body to diagnose disease, often cancer.

Dysplasia

Abnormal development of cells or tissues, often seen as precancerous changes.

Etiology

The study of the cause or origin of a disease or condition.

Gangrene

Tissue death caused by lack of blood supply or infection, leading to decay.

Histology

The study of the microscopic structure of tissues and cells.

Hyperplasia

Increase in the number of cells in a tissue or organ, typically due to stimulus like hormonal changes.

Hypertrophy

Enlargement of an organ or tissue through increased cell size in response to workload.

Infarction

Tissue death caused by a lack of blood flow, often due to blockage.

Ischemia

Reduced blood flow to a tissue, causing lack of oxygen and nutrients, potentially harming cells.

Malignant

Describes a cancerous growth that is aggressive, invading nearby tissues and may metastasize.

Metaplasia

The reversible change of one mature cell type into another due to stress or injury.

Neoplasia

Abnormal and uncontrolled cell growth leading to tumor formation, benign or malignant.

Oxidative Stress

An imbalance between free radicals and antioxidants in the body, which may damage cells.

Pathognomonic Changes

Specific changes in cells or tissues characteristic of a disease, aiding in diagnosis.

Pathological Hypertrophy

Enlargement of an organ due to abnormal stress or disease-related changes.

Physiological Hypertrophy

Normal enlargement of an organ due to healthy processes, like muscle growth from exercise.

Pluripotent Stem Cells

Stem cells that can differentiate into any cell type except extra-embryonic tissues.

Allele

A variant form of a gene occupying a specific position on a chromosome.

Aneuploidy

An abnormal number of chromosomes in a cell, leading to genetic disorders.

Autosomal

Refers to chromosomes that are not sex chromosomes; humans have 22 pairs.

Carrier

An individual with one recessive allele for a genetic disorder who does not express symptoms.

Dominant

An allele that expresses its effect even if only one copy is present.

Gene Locus

The specific location of a gene on a chromosome.

Genomics

The study of all genes in an organism, including their structure and function.

Genotype

The genetic makeup of an individual, referring to specific alleles carried.

Heterozygous

Having two different alleles for a particular gene.

Homozygous

Having two identical alleles for a particular gene.

Karyotype

The complete set of chromosomes in a cell, used for identifying chromosomal abnormalities.

Mutation

A change in DNA sequence that alters gene function, potentially leading to disease.

Oncogene

A mutated gene that can promote uncontrolled cell growth, leading to cancer.

Oncoproteins

Proteins produced by oncogenes that contribute to cancer by infiltrating normal regulatory pathways.

Pharmacogenomics

The study of how genetics affect responses to drugs, aiding personalized treatment.

Phenotype

Observable characteristics or traits of an individual result from genotype-environment interaction.

Recessive

An allele expressed only when two copies are present.

Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs)

Variations in a single nucleotide base pair in DNA that can influence traits.

Translocation

A chromosomal abnormality where a segment is transferred to another chromosome.

Tumor Suppressor Gene

A gene that regulates normal cell growth; mutations may lead to cancer.

Leukocytosis

Increased number of white blood cells in the blood, often due to infection.

Leukopenia

Decreased number of white blood cells in the blood, increasing susceptibility to infections.

Lymph Node

Bean-shaped structures in the lymphatic system that filter bacteria and viruses.

Phagocytosis

The process of engulfing and digesting foreign particles by certain immune cells.

Pyrogen

A substance that triggers fever by affecting the body’s temperature regulation.

Vector

An organism that transmits a pathogen from one host to another.

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)

Disease caused by HIV that weakens the immune system, making the body vulnerable to infections.

Active Immunity

Immunity resulting from the body’s production of antibodies after exposure to pathogens.

Adaptive Immunity

Immune system's ability to recognize and target specific foreign invaders.

Antigen

Substance recognized as foreign by the immune system, prompting antibody production.

Autoimmune Disease

Condition where the immune system attacks its own cells, mistaking them as foreign.

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)

Virus that causes AIDS by attacking CD4+ T cells, weakening the immune system.

Immunodeficiency

Condition where the immune system is weakened and less effective in fighting infections.

Immunoglobins

Antibodies that defend against foreign pathogens.

Innate Immunity

The body's first line of defense against pathogens, with physical barriers and immune cells.

Passive Immunity

Immunity acquired by receiving antibodies from another source.

Bands

Immature neutrophils released into the bloodstream during infection or inflammation.

Blast Cells

Immature or undifferentiated cells often seen in conditions like leukemia.

Leukemia

Cancer affecting bone marrow characterized by uncontrolled production of abnormal leukocytes.

Lymphoma

Cancer originating in the lymphatic system, includes Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin variants.

Anemia

Decreased number of red blood cells or hemoglobin, leading to poor oxygen delivery.

Aplastic Anemia

Bone marrow failure to produce blood cells, leading to pancytopenia.

Erythropoiesis

Process of producing red blood cells in the bone marrow, regulated by erythropoietin.

Hemolysis

Destruction of red blood cells, releasing hemoglobin into the bloodstream.

Pernicious Anemia

Anemia caused by vitamin B12 deficiency due to lack of intrinsic factor.

Pica

Craving non-nutritive substances like dirt or clay, associated with iron deficiency anemia.

Polycythemia

Increased number of red blood cells, raising blood viscosity and clotting risk.

Reticulocyte

Immature red blood cell released from bone marrow, maturing into erythrocytes.

Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation (DIC)

Condition of widespread clotting leading to extensive bleeding.

Extrinsic Pathway

Clotting pathway activated by external trauma to blood vessels.

Fibrinolysis

Process of breaking down fibrin in blood clots to dissolve unwanted clots.

Plasmin

Enzyme responsible for breaking down fibrin in blood clots.

Thrombocytopenia

Low platelet count in blood, increasing bleeding risk.

Thrombocytosis

High platelet count in blood, raising risk of abnormal clotting.

Thrombopoietin

Hormone stimulating platelet production in the bone marrow.

Bradypnea

Abnormally slow breathing, typically under 12 breaths per minute.