Roman Art Final

Julio-Claudian Dynasty

• the succession of four emperors who followed Augustus

• includes Tiberius, Caligula (“little boots”), Claudius, and Nero

• claimed rule due to their lines of descent from Augustus

• under their rule, the principate (rule by a princeps or emperor) required new forms of art and architecture to bolster rulers

• major new forms included dynastic portraiture and imperial palaces

Tiberius

• Julio-Claudian emperor (14-37 CE)

• followed Augustus’ instructions not to undertake expansive foreign wars

• relied more on diplomacy than military force, leading to a peak in peace and prosperity

• owned a villa at sperlonga hosted a spectacular surviving sculptural display

• the centerpiece of his villa was a grotto dining room set in a real cave

• this grotto seemed to set a pattern for later Roman villa dining spaces with artificial or evocative grottos

• the grotto was used for relaxation and banquets

• it contained marble groups (partly rediscovered and reconstituted) of noble art

• these marble groups were mostly dedicated to the vicissitudes of Ulysses

• specific episodes depicted in the marble groups included the blinding of Polyphemus, the attack of the monster Scylla, the abduction of palladio, the rape of Ganymede, and Ulysses dragging the body of Achilles.

Caligula

• Julio-Claudian emperor (37-41 CE)

• few surviving sources on his reign

• described as noble and moderate during the first two years

• after this, sources focus on cruelty, extravagance, sexual perversity, presenting him as an insane tyrant

• reliability of these sources is questioned, but it is known he worked to increase the unconstrained personal power of the emperor

• directed attention to ambitious construction projects and notoriously luxurious dwellings for himself

• brought the Vatican obelisk from egypt to rome and erected it as the centerpiece of the circus of Gaius and Nero

• a massive vessel recovered from lake nemi served as an elaborate floating palace for him

• his sister was Agrippina the younger

Claudius

• Julio-Claudian emperor (41-54 CE)

• caligula’s uncle

• rome prospered during his reign

• engaged in a vast program of public works, including new aqueducts, canals, and the development of Ostia as the port of rome

• reorganized state financial affairs, setting aside a seperate fund for the emperor’s private expenses

• to encourage grain importers and build stocks, he offered insurance against losses on the open sea

• carried out a scheme to build the new port of Ostia on the coast to make unloading easier and relieve congestion in the Tiber

• married his niece, Agrippina the younger, requiring a law to permit the union

• agrippina persuaded him to adopt her son, Nero

• he gave his daughter Octavia in marriage to nero

• he was poisoned by agrippina

Nero

• Julio-Claudian emperor (54-68 CE)

• son of Agrippina the younger, who was Claudius’s niece and Caligula’s sister

• adopted by Claudius at agrippina’s persuasion

• married claudius’s daughter, octavia

• depicted on a gold aureus of CE 54 with his mother, agrippina

• during his early years, he was guided by his tutor Seneca, praetorian perfect Burrus, and his mother

• he retailiated against his mother with attempts to murder her, including a collaspsible boat (from which she swam ashore)

• finally sent a man to club and stab her to death in CE 59

• in CE 64, a fire ravaged Rome for six days, leaving only four of fourteen districts undamaged

• he spent huge sums rebuilding the city and building a vast new imperial palace, the Domus Aurea (golden house)

• the Domus Aurea was a huge luxury complex with rambling pleasure gardens

• its architectural forms were innovative and extravagant, including a domed octagonal hall

• the domus aurea was rediscovered around 1500 when artists lowered themselves into the dark “grottoes” to see the delicate pictorial decorations, which were called “grotesques”

• his suicide led to chaos in CE 69

Sperlonga Grotto

• a grotto dining room at Tiberius’s villa at sperlonga on the tyrrhenian coast

• set in a real cave, it seems to set the pattern for later Roman villa dining spaces with artificial grottos

• used by tiberius and his court for relaxation and banquets

• contained marble groups (partly rediscovered and reconstituted) of noble art

• the sculptures were mostly dedicated to the vicissitudes of Ulysses

• specific episodes depicted include the blinding of Polyphemus, the attack of the monster Scylla, the abduction of Palladio, the rape of Ganymede, and Ulysses dragging the body of Achilles

Flavian Dynasty

• the dynasty that followed the Julio-Claudians, after the chaos of CE 69

• includes Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian

• the name “Flavian” derives from the family name (gens Flavia)

• responsible for significant buildings like the Colosseum and structures in the Roman Forum like the Temple of Vespasian and the Arch of Titus

Vespasian

• Flavian emperor (69-79 CE)

• introduced 10 years of stability and sensible government after the chaos following nero’s suicide

• the conquest of Judaea was completed during his reign with the capture of Masada

• arrived back in rome in Oct. CE 70 at almost 61, still fit and active

• had two sons, Titus and Domitian, and one daughter, Domitilla

• left his son Titus to continue the Jewish campaign

• upon titus’s return after taking Jerusalem in 70, Vespasian made him his associate in government, gave him the title of caesar, and appointed him commander of the imperial guard

• a brass sestertius coin from CE 71 celebrated the victory in the Jewish war, depicting a captive Jew and a mourning Jewish woman under a palm tree, with the legend IVDAEA CAPTA (Judaea subjugated)

• began construction of the Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater) between 70 and 72 CE

• his family name was Flavius

• was diefied in CE 79 upon his death

• the Temple of Vespasian in the Roman Forum was built by Domitian after his death

Titus

• Flavian emperor (79-81 CE)

• son of vespasian and flavia domitilla

• born 30 december CE 40 in rome

• took Jerusalem in 70 CE while assisting his father vespasian

• made vespasian’s associate in government, given the title of Caesar, and appionted commander of the imperial guard

• had a short but memorable reign

• opened the Colosseum (flavian amphitheatre)

• as a young man, was described as dangerously like nero in charm and itellect

• Mount Vesuvius erupted in August CE 79, engulfing Pompeii, Herculaneum, and other towns

• he announced a state of emergency, set up a relief fund, offered practical assistance, and appointed commissioners to administer the disaster area

• completed the construction of the Colosseum in 80 CE

• his family name was Flavius

• the Arch of Titus was built by the Senate after his death to commemorate his conquest of Jerusalem (70 CE)

• the arch is on the via sacra in the roman forum

• inside the arch are bas-reliefs depicting the emperor on his triumphal chariot and the procession of jewish prisoners carrying a candelabrum

• the vault of arch shows Titus deification

• was diefied in CE 81 upon his death

• died suddenly at 40; some suspected his younger brother domitian

Domitian

• flavian emperor (81-96 CE)

• son of vespasian

• made modifications to the Colosseum during his reign

• described as a bad person but a reasonably effective rule

• after his death, he was denied a state funeral and his name was obliterated from public buildings

• described as an unpleasant but effective emperor

• his assassination ended dynastic rule, as his successor, Nerva, was childless

• erected a palace (<palatium>) on the palatine hill to show his superiority

• he called himself “lord and god”

• commissioned the Domitian Stadium, also known as the Circus Agonalis, around 80 AD as a gift to the people of Rome

• the stadium was used mostly for athletic contests

• Piazza Navona in rome sits over the interior area of the stadium

• the sweep of buildings embracing Piazza Navona incorporate the stadium’s original lower arcades

• built the Temple of Vespasian (his diefied father) in the Roman Forum in 94 CE

Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheatre)

• an elliptical amphitheatre in the center of rome, the largest ever built in the roman emperor

• considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering

• occupied a site just east of roman forum

• construction started between 70 and 72 CE under emperor vespasian

• completed in 80 CE by his son titus

• further modifications were made during Domitian’s reign (81-96)

• its name derives from the Flavian family name

• originally capable of seating around 80,000 spectators

• used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles, such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology

• ceased use for entertainment in the early medieval era

• later reused for housing, workshops, religious quarters, a fortress, a quarry, and a christian shrine

• estimated that about 500,000 people and over a million wild animals died in the games held there

• the exterior facade has three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium and attic

• the arcades are framed by half-columns of Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders

• the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters

• arches on the 2nd and 3rd floors framed statues, probably honoring divinities and mythological figures

• two hundred and forty mast corbels around the top of the attic supported a retractable awning called the velarium

• the velarium was a canvas-covered, net-like structure of ropes with a hole in the center, covering two-thirds of the arena

• sailors from the roman naval headquarters at Misenum worked the velarium

• architects adopted solutions similar to modern stadiums for quickly filing/evacuating crowds

• spectators were given tickets (numbered pottery sherds) directing them to their section and row

• they accessed seats via vomitoria (passageways)

• the vomitoria quickly dispersed people and allowed exit within minutes. the name comes from the Latin word for rapid discharge

• the arena was 83 by 48 meters (272 by 157 ft)

• the arena floor was wooden and covered by san (Latin: harena or arena)

• the arena floor covered an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (“underground”)

• little of the original aren floor remains, but the hypogeum is still visible

• the hypogeum was a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages where gladiators and animals were held

• eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the aren for caged animals and scenery; larger hinged platforms (hegmata) provided access for elephants

Pompeian Styles

• Wall painting styles found in Pompeii.

• Allowed art historians to delineate phases of interior decoration in the centuries leading up to the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 CE.

• The eruption both destroyed and preserved the paintings.

• The styles show a reiteration of stylistic themes.

• The paintings provide information about the prosperity and specific tastes of the time.

•The sources mention a fresco from the villa of Publio Fannio Sinistore in Boscoreale as an example.

Five Good Emperors

• A term coined by Niccolò Machiavelli in 150324.

• Refers to the emperors Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius, who ruled from 96 to 180 CE.

• Machiavelli believed these emperors, who succeeded by adoption, were good, in contrast to emperors succeeding by birth (except Titus)24.

• Their rule followed the extinction of the Julio-Claudian and Flavian dynasties.

• During this period, able men could rise to power and reign effectively without internecine upheaval

Nerva

• One of the Five Good Emperors (96-98 CE)25.

• Roman Emperor from 96 to 98.

• Became emperor at age sixty-five.

• Had a lifetime of imperial service under Nero and the Flavians.

• Member of Nero's imperial entourage, played a vital part in exposing the Pisonian conspiracy of 65.

• Loyalist to the Flavians, attained consulships in 71 (under Vespasian) and 90 (under Domitian).

• The Senate nominated him after Domitian's assassination.

• He was 65 and childless, factors that weighed with the Senate, which did not want another family dynasty.

• Assured military support by adopting Marcus Ulpius Trajanus (Trajan), commander in Upper Germany, as his son and joint ruler.

• Set a significant precedent by nominating his successor.

• His adoption of Trajan gave way to the so-called Nerva-Trajan dynasty (Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian).

Trajan

• One of the Five Good Emperors (98-117 CE).

• Born Marcus Ulpius Trajanus in Italica, Spain (near modern Seville).

• Regarded as the first provincial emperor of Rome.

• Adopted son and successor of Nerva....

• Became emperor in 98 CE.

• Established that the Senate would be kept informed and that sovereign right was compatible with freedom for the ruled.

• Described as a brilliant general and a good person to work for.

• Best known as a military commander, particularly for conquests in the Near East.

• Annexed the Nabatan kingdom, creating the province of Arabia Petraea.

• Fought two wars against Dacia (101-102, 106).

• Incorporated Dacia into the Empire, an area that had troubled Roman thought after Domitian's unfavorable peace.

•Built a massive bridge over the Danube with the design of Apollodorus of Damascus during the second Dacian campaign.

• His conquest of Dacia greatly enriched the empire due to gold mines.

• War against the Parthian Empire ended with the sack of Ctesiphon and annexation of Armenia and Mesopotamia.

• His campaigns expanded the Roman Empire to its greatest territorial extent.

• As a civilian administrator, known for his extensive public building program which reshaped Rome.

• Enduring landmarks include Trajan's Forum, Trajan's Market, and Trajan's Column.

• To make way for Trajan's Forum, a large portion of the Quirinal Hill base was cut away, moving 61 million cubic meters of earth/rock.

• His Column is a great monument to the victory over the Dacians.

• The Emperor's ashes were once set into the base of the column, and his statue stood on top.

• The most important part of the Column is the helicoidal band of figures documenting the arms, art, and costumes of the Romans and Dacians.

• Trajan's Markets are set into the Quirinal Hill, consisting of a well-preserved, semicircular, three-story structure with offices and shops.

• A gold aureus depicts the triumphal arch entrance to his Forum.

• After his first Dacian victory celebration in 103 CE, there were 123 days of public games and gladiatorial contests.

• Fell ill and died in CE 117 on his way back from the Parthian Wars.

• Deified by the Senate, his ashes were laid to rest under Trajan's Column.

• Left his chief-of-staff and ward, Hadrian, in charge in the east.

Trajan’s Column

• A monument built in Rome by Emperor Trajan.

• A great monument to the victory over the Dacians.

• The ashes of the Emperor were once set into the base, and his statue stood on top.

• The most important part is the helicoidal band of figures that spirals around it.

• This band documents the arms, art, and costumes of the Romans and Dacians.

• The Column of Marcus Aurelius was modeled on Trajan's Column.

• Despite similar military scenes, the artistic style of the Column of Marcus Aurelius differs greatly.

• Figures on the Column of Marcus Aurelius are stockier, proportions distorted, with extra-large heads and deep relief for better visibility from the ground.

• Military strength is emphasized more on Marcus Aurelius's Column than on Trajan's.

• On Trajan's Column, the majority of scenes depict the preparation for battle, rather than the battles themselves.

Hadrian

• One of the Five Good Emperors (117-138 CE)

• Adopted son of Trajan.

• Succeeded Trajan in CE 117.

• Was Trajan's chief-of-staff and ward.

• Settled down to restore general order throughout the empire and consolidate administration.

• Travelled tirelessly to all provinces and their outer confines.

• As a lover of Greek culture, he is the first Emperor portrayed with a beard.

• Spent extensive time with the military, wearing military attire and dining/sleeping among soldiers.

• Ordered more rigorous military training and drilling.

• Withdrew from Trajan's conquests in Mesopotamia and Armenia, considering them indefensible.

• Considered abandoning Dacia.

• Late in his reign, he suppressed the Bar Kokhba revolt in Judaea, renaming the province Syria Palaestina.

• His peace policy was strengthened by permanent fortifications along the empire's borders (limites).

• The most famous fortification is the massive Hadrian's Wall in Great Britain.

• Strengthened the Danube and Rhine borders with forts, outposts, and watchtowers.

• His policy was peace through strength, even threat.

• Was a humanist and philhellene (lover of Greek culture).

• His obsession with Greek studies earned him the nickname "Graeculus" ("the little Greek").

• Sought to make Athens the cultural capital of the empire and ordered the construction of opulent temples there.

• Had a close relationship with a Bithynian Greek youth named Antinous, which was likely sexual.

• Used his relationship with Antinous to underline his philhellenism.

• After Antinous died on a journey on the Nile, Hadrian wept and had him deified.

• A Greco-Egyptian cult devised and promulgated by Hadrian for Antinous proliferated throughout the east.

• Antinous became one of the most represented individuals of Roman Art.

• Described as the most versatile of all Roman Emperors.

• Liked to demonstrate knowledge of all intellectual and artistic fields.

• Patronized the arts.

• His villa at Tibur (Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli) was the greatest example of his patronage.

• Hadrian's Villa was designed with pavilions imitating places he visited around the Empire.

• In Rome, he re-built the Pantheon and constructed the Temple of Venus and Roma.

• The Temple of Venus and Roma is thought to have been the largest temple in Ancient Rome.

• Hadrian was the architect of the Temple of Venus and Roma.

• The Pantheon was originally built by Agrippa but almost destroyed by fire in 80 CE.

• Hadrian remade the Pantheon in 118 CE in the domed form it retains today.

• The Pantheon is substantially intact, thanks to its transformation into a Christian church.

• It is among the best preserved ancient buildings in Rome and highly influential to later architects.

• The Pantheon's interior is a single majestic space centered on a curved line with a central oculus.

• Commissioned the Mausoleum of Hadrian (now Castel Sant'Angelo) as a tomb for himself and his family.

• In 138, he resolved to adopt Antoninus Pius as his successor.

• He required Antoninus to adopt both Marcus Aurelius (Antoninus's nephew) and Aelius's son Lucius Verus as his own eventual successors to ensure the future of the dynasty.

• Died at Baiae after Antoninus agreed to the adoptions.

• The Senate regarded him with suspicion and resentment, proposing to cancel his acts and deny him deification after death.

• His adopted son, Antoninus Pius, successfully had his deification reinstated.

• His wife Sabina chose a Greek hairstyle, helping to promote his Panhellenic agenda. Her style was comparable to Praxitiles's Aphrodite of Knidos.

Antoninus Pius

• One of the Five Good Emperors (138-161 CE).

• Adopted son and successor of Hadrian...

• Adopted by Hadrian in 138 CE.

• Hadrian required him to adopt Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus as his successors.

• Had a peaceful reign.

• Married Annia Galeria Faustina the Elder (110-115), a woman renowned for her wisdom and care for the poor.

• After Faustina died in 141, he asked the Senate to deify her and authorized a temple in her name in the Roman Forum.

• Had coins struck in her honor with her portrait ("DIVAE FAUSTINA").

• Objected to the Senate's motion to cancel Hadrian's acts and deny him deification.

• Had the deification of Hadrian reinstated in 139 and given a temple on the Campus Martius.

• It is said he received the title "Pius" for this action.

• The Temple of Antoninus and Faustina in the Roman Forum (now San Lorenzo in Miranda) was built in their honor. They were deified after death.

• His heirs, Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius, had a column erected to him on the Campus Martius, the base of which survives.

• The base of his column depicts an identical scene of a military decursio on two sides.

• The relief carvings are high, protruding from the sides.

• One side has a dedicatory inscription, and the opposite panel shows the apotheosis of Antoninus Pius and his wife Faustina.

• The apotheosis scene depicts a winged figure named Aion (Eternity) carrying the couple to heaven, surrounded by eagles.

• Two figures look on from the ground: a personification of the Campus Martius and a personification of Rome.

• The personification of Rome salutes the emperor and empress while leaning on a shield depicting the she-wolf suckling Romulus and Remus.

• In official portraits, he mimicked Hadrian's appearance with thick curly hair and a curly, closely-trimmed beard to forge a visual link to his predecessor.

Marcus Aurelius

• One of the Five Good Emperors (161-180 CE).

• Antoninus Pius's own nephew and adopted son.

• Required by Hadrian (via Antoninus) to be an eventual successor.

• Ruled with Lucius Verus as co-emperor from 161 until Verus's death in 169.

• Verus obeyed him as a lieutenant obeys a proconsul or a governor obeys the emperor.

• Considered one of the most important Stoic philosophers.

• Admired the Greeks and wore a beard style akin to Greek philosophers, which matched his personality and interests.

• Hadrian was the first emperor portrayed with a beard, and Marcus Aurelius, like Antoninus and Verus, is identified by his.

• After Antoninus Pius's peaceful reign, Marcus Aurelius spent most of his time in the field with his armies.

• One of his armies brought back a virulent plague from an eastern campaign (estimated 5 million deaths), severely weakening the Empire.

• At his death in 180, the empire was undergoing a period of unease.

• The uncertainty and conflict led to little building and a rise in interest in deities offering personal salvation (Mithras, Isis, Dionysus, Christianity, Hercules).

• His reign was largely occupied by the Marcomannic Wars (c. 166-180) against Germanic peoples along the Danube border.

• Upon his death in 180, his son Commodus succeeded him as the last of the Antonine emperors.

• Remembered by the triumphal column in Rome bearing his name, which records his victories over the Marcomanni.

• The Column of Marcus Aurelius is a Roman victory column with a spiral relief, modeled on Trajan's Column.

• Stands on its original site in Piazza Colonna.

• The artistic style of his column differs greatly from Trajan's Column.

• Figures are stockier, proportions distorted, with extra-large heads and deep relief for better visibility from the ground.

• The column emphasizes military strength more than Trajan's Column, depicting battles more than preparation.

• The style, high relief, and military emphasis demonstrate the changing priorities and social-political attitudes of the period.

• An original bronze equestrian statue of him is preserved in the Capitoline Museums.

• The equestrian statue is one of few surviving examples of this type of imperial portrait.

• Spared destruction by early Christians who thought it was Constantine.

• Presented as a commander reviewing troops and blessing the crowd, with a calm face and effortless control over his horse, signifying a powerful leader.

• His wife, Faustina the Younger, promoted a style with carefully crimped hair worn close to the head.

Antonine Dynasty

• Art during the reigns of Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, and Commodus.

• Shows continuity with the Trajanic and Hadrianic periods.

• Under Marcus Aurelius, art begins to reflect the instability and insecurity that mark the third century.

• A significant change in style took place over a few years.

• The triumphal column dedicated to Marcus Aurelius has reliefs representing his campaigns that had less artistic force than those on the Column of Trajan.

• A sharp decline began in the art of commemorative reliefs.

• Imperial portraits in this period (Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, Lucius Verus) are identified by beards, following Hadrian's precedent.

• Antoninus Pius mimics Hadrian's appearance (thick curly hair, closely-trimmed beard) to forge a visual link.

• Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus are depicted with thick curly hair and long, curly beards.

• This beard style was akin to the preferred style of Greek philosophers, matching Marcus Aurelius's interests..

• Imperial female portraiture kept some Flavian flavor but was simpler.

• Hadrian's wife Sabina chose a Greek hairstyle.

• Marcus Aurelius's wife Faustina the Younger promoted a style with carefully crimped hair worn close to the head.

• Roman art excelled in portraits of anonymous individuals during this period.

• These anonymous portraits were marvels of realism and personality, reproducing the features of various peoples of the Empire.

• Filled with life and realism, they appear to have more personality than academic imperial portraits.

• Mummy portraits (Fayum mummy portraits) from Roman Egypt are a type of naturalistic painted portrait on wooden boards attached to mummies.

• They belong to the tradition of panel painting.

• The Fayum portraits are a rare surviving body of this tradition.

• They show a combination of Egyptian, Greek, and Roman traditions from the Roman occupation period.

• They are bust images found attached to the face of the deceased within the mummy wrappings.

• Painted on wooden panels, preserved in Egypt's dry sand.

• The painting follows Greek artistic tradition, using wax-based encaustic or egg-based tempera paint.

Severen Emperors

• The dynasty that followed the civil war after Commodus's murder in 193.

• Had more strongly marked provincial Roman origins than predecessors.

• Founded by Septimius Severus (193-211), an African general.

• Rule extended from 193 to 235 CE, including Septimius Severus, Caracalla (211-17), Geta (ruled jointly with Caracalla briefly), Elagabalus (218-22), and Alexander Severus (222-35).

• Septimius Severus restored peace but the dynasty was disturbed by family conflicts, plots, political turmoil, and external threats.

• These factors contributed to the "crisis of the 3rd century".

• Severus Alexander, the last Severan, was assassinated by his own troops in 235 CE, which is considered the start of the Crisis of the Third Century.

• The Severans were active in building, undertaking a lengthy list of projects in Rome.

• Architecturally, it was an age of consolidation and achievement rather than new experiment, and a time of transition.

• A priority was the restoration and modernization of existing monuments damaged by a fire in 191 (e.g., Temple of Vesta, Temple of Vespasian, Pantheon, Porticus Octaviae).

• Produced a detailed map of Rome (Forma Urbis Romae) carved on marble slabs, a valuable document.

• Worked on the Palatine hill, extending the Flavian palace.

• Built the singular Septizodium on the Palatine, a lofty decorative façade.

• Active in the provision of public baths, notably the Baths of Caracalla.

• Severan architecture demonstrated qualities of resource and high technical competence.

Septimius Severus

• Founder of the Severan dynasty (193-211 CE).

• A tough, able soldier of African extraction.

• His wife was Julia Domna, from a Syrian family.

• Presented himself as the legitimate heir and successor to the Antonine Emperors.

• Aware that dynastic considerations called for a certain display of architectural munificence.

• Restored peace following Commodus's death.

• Greatly expanded the influence and wealth of his home area, the Roman North African province, making Leptis Magna a major recipient of his largess.

• His philosophy of rule for his sons (Caracalla and Geta) was: pay the army well and take no notice of the senate.

• Brought about changes in how imperial power was exercised, promoting Military, Dynastic, Anti-senatorial, and Absolutist aspects of the regime.

• Established a connection with the Antonine dynasty through retroactive adoption, declaring himself the son of Marcus Aurelius and brother of Commodus in 195.

• Aimed to secure his family's place in the future; dynastic policy extended to the whole royal family (domus divina).

• His wife Julia Domna was called Augusta and associated with government; his sons were called Augusti.

• Promoted the cult of the living emperors, contrasting with previous centuries where this was seen as tyrannical.

• Relations with the Senate were strained from the first years.

• The position of his triumphal arch in the Roman Forum symbolizes this strain; it dominates the Rostra and Curia.

• While the Senate retained social/cultural prestige, it showed signs of political enfeeblement, coinciding with the ascendancy of the equestrian order.

• Was deified by the Senate and succeeded by his sons, Caracalla and Geta.

• His triumphal arch in the Republican Forum is his most durable and well-known architectural work in Rome.

• The arch was originally dedicated to Septimius Severus and his two sons, Caracalla and Geta.

• After his death, Caracalla murdered Geta, and Geta's name was removed from the arch and all public buildings.

Julia Domna

• Wife of Septimius Severus.

• From a Syrian family.

• Called Augusta and associated with government under the Severan dynasty.

• Advised her sons Caracalla and Geta after Septimius Severus died.

• Broke the Roman tradition that women took no part in public life.

• Dealt with petitions and her son Caracalla's correspondence (in Latin and Greek).

• Held soirées and receptions for philosophers and scientists.

• By some accounts, Geta cowered in her arms when Caracalla murdered him.

• Depicted with Septimius Severus and sons Geta and Caracalla on a wood tondo from 199 CE.

Baths of Caracalla

• An important public bath complex built by the Severan emperors.

• Dedicated in 216 CE by Caracalla.

• Still one of the most impressive buildings from antiquity.

• Embodies the concrete architecture of the earlier Empire at its full maturity.

• Demonstrates qualities of resource and high technical competence in Severan architecture.

• Built along the Via Appia, outside the Porta Capena of the Servian walls.

• Later included in the area enclosed by the Aurelian Walls.

• Were the largest of the public baths built in Rome.

Crisis of the Third Century

• A period of nearly fifty years (roughly 235-284 CE) of disorder, multiple civil wars, economic chaos, regional rebellions, and external threats.

• Followed the assassination of the last Severan emperor, Severus Alexander, by his own troops in 235 CE.

• During these middle years (235-284), the Roman Empire was almost destroyed.

• Characterized by barbarian invasions (Goths, German tribes) threatening from outside.

• Also marked by almost continuous civil war, with emperors being placed on the throne by the army only to be murdered and replaced.

• Aurelian (emperor 270-275) temporarily averted external threats and dealt with separatism.

• The period of instability continued until the accession of Diocletian in AD 284.

Aurelian Walls

• A line of city walls built around Rome between 271 and 275 CE.

• Built during the reign of Emperors Aurelian and Probus.

• Aurelian, who became emperor in 270 CE during the Crisis of the Third Century, built this great defensive wall.

• The wall was finished after Aurelian's death.

• It was about 20 km long, 4 m thick, and 7.2 m high.

• Constructed in brick-faced concrete.

• Featured a square tower every 100 Roman feet (29.6 meters).

Diocletian

• Became emperor in AD 284 (ruled 284-305).

• A Dalmatian of humble origin, he emerged as commander of the imperial guard and was proclaimed emperor by the troops.

• With his accession, the empire enjoyed greater stability for the next two decades.

• He attempted to repair some of the material and financial damage from the Crisis of the Third Century.

• The empire had two parts: a Greek/Hellenized East and a Roman/Celtic West.

• He made a last attempt to hold the empire together with his "tetrarch" system.

• The tetrarch system involved an Augustus (senior) and a Caesar (apprentice) for both the east and the west.

• Split the empire into east and west in 286 CE.

• Appointed Maximian to rule the west and Africa.

• Further divided responsibilities in 292 CE: Diocletian and Maximian remained senior emperors (Augustus), while Galerius (Diocletian's son-in-law) and Constantius were made deputy emperors (Caesar).

• This system established rule by four rulers, called the tetrarchy (Greek for "rule by four"). (Earlier terms like "quadrumvirate" had Latin roots).

• A porphyry sculpture from 305 CE in Venice represents the Tetrarchy and emphasizes imperial power.

• None of the four administrators lived in Rome; they had capitals nearer troublesome border areas.

• Diocletian retained eastern provinces and set up his headquarters at Nicomedia in Bithynia, holding court like an eastern potentate.

• He set up another set of public Baths in Rome, which are better preserved than others.

• Major parts of Diocletian's Baths were reused as a Christian religious establishment (Church of St. Mary of the Angels and Martyrs), and adjacent buildings became rectories, schools, or museums.

• The Baths occupied high ground northeast of the Viminal Hill, serving the Viminal, Quirinal, and Esquiline quarters.

Tetrarchy

• A system of government created by Emperor Diocletian to end civil wars and foreign invasions after the Crisis of the Third Century.

• Means "rule by four" (from Greek).

• Established in 286 CE by splitting the empire into east and west.

• Diocletian and Maximian were the senior emperors (Augusti), ruling the east and west respectively.

• Galerius and Constantius were the deputy emperors (Caesars).

• The four rulers had capitals nearer to troublesome border areas, and none lived in Rome.

• A porphyry sculpture from 305 CE represents the Tetrarchy and emphasizes imperial power.

Portraiture (Imperial Women)

• Women of imperial families set fashion and beauty standards.

• They established hairstyles, which are so distinctive that busts and statues can be dated to specific decades based on the woman depicted.

• During the reign of the Flavians, a fashionable style involved hairpieces and wigs to create a stack of curls on the crown of the head.

• During the Nervan-Antonine period, portraits and hairstyles were simpler but kept some Flavian flavor.

• Trajan's wife Pompeia Plotina and niece Matidia established a new style that was almost an abstraction of the Flavian style, featuring a long braid behind a crown-like pile of hair.

• Hadrian's wife Sabina chose a Greek hairstyle, helping promote Hadrian's Panhellenism; her hair is held back by a band and woven around the back.

• Marcus Aurelius's wife Faustina the Younger promoted a style with carefully crimped hair worn close to the head.

Portraits of Anonymous Individuals

• During the Flavian and Antonine periods, Roman art excelled in portraits of individuals who were not emperors.

• These portraits are described as marvels of realism and personality62.

• They endeavored to reproduce the features of the various peoples of the Empire with their variety of characters and races.

• Filled with life and realism, these portraits appear to have much more personality than the more academic portraits of emperors.

• Examples include the portrait of an old man in the National Archaeological Museum of Aquileia.

• Mummy portraits (Fayum portraits) from Roman Egypt are also examples of naturalistic, non-imperial portraits.

Fayum Mummy Portraits

• A type of naturalistic painted portrait on wooden boards.

• Attached to upper-class mummies from Roman Egypt.

• Belong to the tradition of panel painting, one of the most highly regarded forms of art in the Classical world.

• They are the only large body of art from that tradition to have survived.

• Provide evidence of the direct effect of Roman rule on Egypt, representing a combination of Egyptian, Greek, and Roman traditions.

• Exist as about 900 extant bust images of individuals.

• Vast majority are painted on wooden panels, placed over the face of the deceased and held in place by wrappings.

• Their preservation is due to burial in the dry sand of Egypt.

• The painting itself follows the Greek artistic tradition.

• Two types of paint were used: wax-based encaustic and egg-based tempera.