social-cognitive learning

Cognitive map

Mental representation of the spatial characteristics of a familiar environment.

Tolman set out to test the idea that rats develop ‘spatial maps’ of their environment, rather than a series of chained responses to external cues.

Studied using maze-running experiments.

Latent learning (hidden learning)

Learning could occur in the absence of rewards and punishments

Eg.

Group A. Rats were never reinforced with food rewards - they merely explored the maze each day

Group B. Standard condition in which the rats find a food rewards (+reinforcer) in the goal box each day

Group C. Crucial group of rats. These rats received the same treatment as those in group A (never rewarded) up until day 10. On the 11th day they found a reward in the goal box. On the 12th day their performance equaled the rats who had been continuously reinforced. This was called the DELAYED REWARD CONDITION.

Rats in group A appear not to learn

Rats in group B learned quickly

Rats in group C also appeared not to learn. But when given a food reward on the 11th day, their performance on subsequent days equaled the performance of the rats in group B

Shows that latent learning exists, rats didn’t appear to learn anything, however when given food they were able to do the maze, shows that they did learn, just didn’t have a reason to complete the maze.

Observational learning

Provides another example of how learning can occur indirectly, without direct reinforcement or punishment.

Eg children will learn from what they observe, but will only perform (demonstrate) that learning observably in behaviour under certain conditions.

Learning takes place “socially” and “vicariously” through observing other (“models”).

Albert Bandura psychologist most associated with the study of observational learning.

Observational learning takes place through active judgement and constructive processes.

Social-cognitive learning

Model-rewarded condition (vicarious reinforcement)

After beating up the doll, the model was praised “strong champion” and was given 7-Up and popcorn and chocolate. While the model was consuming his treats, the child watching symbolically reinstated the modelled aggressive responses and engaged in considerable positive social reinforcement

Model punished condition (vicarious punishment)

Model was told “Hey there, you big bully. You quit picking on that clown. I won’t tolerate it.” Adult sat on the model and spanked him with a rolled-up magazine while reminding him of his aggressive behaviour. Model ran off cowering, adult said “If I catch you doing that again, you big bully, I’ll give you a hard spanking. You quit acting that way.”

No consequences

Viewed the same film as shown to the other groups except that no reinforcement ending was included.

Bandura’s experiment

Bobo doll: children observed a model kicking and punching the doll and yelling at it. Each child was randomly allocated to one of the three versions of the film. After viewing the film, the child was put in a waiting room to wait for their parent to collect them. Room had toys, bobo doll, rubber mallet and balls that were seen in the film.

Bandura’s study demonstrated vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment

• that learning can occur socially through observation, in the absence of directly experienced consequences

• Performance of aggressive acts is influenced by mental representations of observed consequences

• Knowledge remained latent in the model-punished group until a reward was introduced

Implication of Tolman’s and Bandura’s findings for Behaviourism

Edward Tolman (Latent learning & cognitive maps)

Showed that rats could learn the layout of a maze without receiving any reward - latent learning. Once reward was introduced, the rats quickly used their prior knowledge

Implication for behaviourism:

• contradicted for behaviourism’s strict reliance on reinforcement

• Suggested that learning can occur without reinforcement, but may not be immediately evident until there is motivation to demonstrate it.

• Introduced the idea of internal mental processes (like cognitive maps), which behaviourism ignored

Albert Bandura (observational learning & social learning theory)

Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment showed that children can learn behaviours by observing others, even without any reinforcement or punishment.

Implication for behaviourism:

• showed that learning can occur vicariously, by watching others being rewarded or punished (vicarious reinforcement/punishment).

• Introduced concepts like modelling, attention, memory, and motivation, emphasising the role of cognitive processes in learning.

• Challenged the notion that direct experienced consequences is necessary for learning.

Learning = direct reinforcement - Tolman & Bandura - Learning can occur without reinforcement

Focus only on observable behaviour - Both - Internal cognitive processes matter (eg memory, expectations, attention)

Behaviour = result of stimulus - responses (S-R) - Tolman - Learning involves purposeful behaviour and mental representations (S-O-R)

No role of mental processes in learning - Bandura - Cognitive factors like attention, imitation, and motivation are essential