A LEVEL HISTORY, America conformity and challenge

Why was 1955-63 a period of prosperity for (white) Americans?

They had larger homes, more labour-saving devices, cars, and higher salaries than anyone else in the world; they believed they lived in a land of opportunity where hard work would improve living standards.

Common concerns of American public 1953-61, under Eisenhower?

Nuclear threat from Soviet union, threat of extreme conformity, consumerism, the American youth, race relations, economic inequality within the country

Eisenhower character, policies, achievements?

A very hands-off president, disliked Roosevelts New Deal safety net for the old and poor, but didn't do anything about it, lack of empathy for black Americans, due to the Cold War created NASA and the National Defence Education Act (promoted study of science in US), interstate highway system

How many cars were produced in 1955, and how much did they cost?

Around 7.9 million cars were made in 1955 alone, and started at $1300, 2/5s the normal American income. Car ownership went from 39 million in 1950 to 73 million in 1960.

Why did people buy cars so often in 1955-?

With greater career security, during the post-war economic boom people could spend, remembered the constraints of the Depression, defined one's status, promised mobility and freedom

Which brands of cars did different parts of society buy in 1955?

Wealthy white men favoured Lincolns and Cadillacs, middle and working class (white) Americans bought Chevrolet, and Ford, hispanic drivers often bought second hand Chevys, and Cadillacs became power symbols for black middle class.

Why were cars attractive for young people and women?

Represented independence, individuality, and freedom, in 1953, Kinsey sex survey found that young people had sex in their cars as much as in their houses, cars for women reflected traditional attitudes (came with lipstick, or could buy clothes in the same fabric)

How did 'on-the-road' culture grow and affect society?

Americans could get to places faster and more comfortably, could watch a movie, attend church, and order fast food all from the comfort of their car. Because of this, roadside motels and restaurants were made, creating many jobs in the service industry

How did service industries grow with the 'on-the-road' culture?

By 1960 7.9 million service workers, and number of white collar workers had grown by 6 million. Industry workers decreased from 39% to 36% due to increased automation, leading to economically depressed areas in industrial heartlands such as the Midwest and Northeast.

What explains the massive growth of suburbia in the 60s, known as the 'white flight'?

a) during ww2, there was a shortage of house building to the point where streetcars were being sold as housing, motivating builders to build more houses, mortgages were also easily available

b) land and new homes cheaper in suburbs

c) increased car ownership made it more accessible for people living in suburbs to commute to work

d) inner city population constituted of poor blacks and whites, there was high taxes, noise, congestion, which wasn't desired by the white middle class

When and where was the first Levittown home built?

Hampstead, Long Island in 1947

Why were Levittowns so attractive to white American families?

a) priced only around 2 times the middle class income

b) spacious, well constructed

c) racially exclusive

What was the Great Migration?

The movement of 6 million African-Americans out of the rural Southern United States to the urban Northeast, Midwest, and West that occurred between 1910 and 1970.

How did white people contribute to the growth of ghettos?

Used restrictive covenants, lenders developers and city officials made it difficult for black Americans to buy decent housing, whites stages housing riots driving blacks out of their houses, white people fled to suburbs

How did the federal government contribute to the growth of ghettos?

a) when FHA was distributed billions of dollars of mortgages, they purposely excluded racial groups as they were 'risky'

b) federal constructed highways only aided people in the suburbs to continue living there

c) any attempts to aid these people often failed, such as the Pruitt-Igoe project in st. louis

How much had purchasing power increased from 1950 to 1960?

Purchasing power, how much money people in reality can spend, increased by almost 30%

How were household goods part of the American Dream?

It represented that the American society could buy whatever they wanted, whenever they wanted it. It made lives easier for housewives

Why did people oppose the new consumer culture of the 60s?

People believed that this was deviating from traditional American values (hard work and money management), and that people were becoming too consumerist and materialistic.

Evidence that teenagers had become a major factor in the economy, due to their consumerism?

Owned 10 million record players, 1 million tv sets, 13 million cameras. Spent around $1.5 billion on entertainment in just 1858. As well as this, the growing number of teen marriages meant that teenage girls were become large spenders on items such as furniture.

Why was America characterised by greater conformity post ww2?

Those who fought in the war, and experienced the economic depression craved economic success and stability, and a pressure was created by businesses, advertisements and media to consume and promote a common culture

Why was 1954 criticised as the 'Age of Conformity'?

It was created by Cold War politics and mass society, where individualism was replaced with mass society.

What was the organisation man?

'The organisation man' was a term used to describe workers in massive organisations, who had to work and get along with many others.

How popular was TV in the early 60s?

90% of American homes had televisions, favourite leisure activity for more than 50% of society, and frequently reinforced contemporary values.

Criticisms/Praise of TV?

Promoted conformity (Father knows best), Consumerism (through adverts), caused a decline in reading and test scores BUT cheap entertainment for the whole family, developed a national culture, news programmes brought awareness to different events (such as little rock in 1957)

Hollywood in 1950s?

Sometimes did defy societal standards (Baby Doll showed sex, The Defiant Ones showed one white and one black man having to work together, Rebel Without A Cause showed a teen rebel). However, it was still a business, and didn't want to alienate viewers; and such still showed heroic men, submissive women and evil 'Indians'.

Was advertising successful in the 50s?

Money spent on it had almost doubled to $11 billion by 1960, possibly due to increase in television consumption, MORE MONEY THAN SPENT ON EDUCATION!!!

Who are beats and squares?

A square: old fashioned, conventional, mainstream. Beat: opposite: rejected materialism, consumer culture, conformity and advocated drugs, free love, and defiance of authority

First examples of beat generation?

Allen Ginsburg- did a reading of Howl, a poem written under the influence of drugs, dealing with drugs homosexuality and other controversial topics.

Jack Kerouac- Wrote a book On The Road (1957), about his travels, under the influence of drugs with excessively long sentences observing the empty life lived by Americans

Who were the beatniks?

Group that arose from the influence of the Beats. Characterised by sandals, skinny jeans, baggy jumpers, jazz, sex, drugs etc. Beats thought they were pretentious copycats, as they were doing it for the fashion.

What was the fear of juvenile delinquency in the 50s?

Gangs, especially those for teenagers, were very common in the slums of New York and Chicago. There was general unease, saying that these kids were harmful, but research discovered that there was no real rise in this, and these kids were just subject to peer pressure.

How did music change in the 50s for the youth?

Rock n Roll started a widespread challenge to the dominant culture, combined black 'race' music and hillbilly, added to youth's identity, and teenagers had started gaining enough money to spend on records: $521 million spent on them in 1960, ELVIS PRESLEY!!! known for suggestive moves, and distinctive music.

Jim Crow laws: what were they, and examples?

A new method of race control introduced by the Southern states, after the American civil war. Segregated from hospitals, railroad cars, restrooms, restaurants. Schools could be made separately for black people.

Black Americans 1955 social inferiority?

Had to use different resources as white people: everything was labelled coloured or non-coloured such as water fountains, bathrooms, and even seating.

Black Americans 1955 political inferiority

80% were unable to vote. Voters were threatened, with violence and intimidation, or were asked almost impossible questions; as a form of means testing. If they somehow managed to pass these, they would then be subject to a massive poll tax.

Black Americans 1955 economic inferiority

Although there was a growing middle class, most black people worked in low-paying jobs such as in domestics. This was owed to the segregated schooling that most of these children received.

Black Americans 1955 legal inequality?

No protection of black Americans in the courts, eg. Emmett Till case where after wolf-whistling at a white woman, his mutilated body was dragged out of the Mississippi river at 14.

What was the NAACP?

National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People, est. 1909, aimed to make America's 11 million black citizens equal economically, socially, politically, and legally. They had a newspaper, many local branches, and lawyers.

Were the NAACP successful?

In 1950, they won Supreme Court rulings against segregated universities, but its greatest triumph was the Brown ruling- saying that separate schools in the south weren't equal. Removed de jure segregation, but still couldn't be enforced by Supreme court; so schools remained separated.

Who is Rosa Parks?

Black seamstress who refused to give up her bus seat to a white man in 1955; sparked a boycott of the entire bus system, an avid member of the NAACP.

What was the Montgomery Bus Boycott?

A civil-rights protest during which African Americans refused to ride city buses in Montgomery, Alabama, to protest segregated seating, sought fully integrated buses, and the employment of black drivers. Lead by MLK.

Results of Montgomery Bus Boycott

In 1956, buses in Montgomery desegregated, and the importance of mass direct action as a protest technique was proven. Although only Montgomery's buses were desegregated, it lead to the establishment of MLK as a strong leader, and he established SCLC in 57.

Ku Klux Klan: who were they and what did they achieve?

An armed, white, racist group: gained millions of members all over the USA. Sent 40 carloads of robed hooded members through the black community in Montgomery, bombed, attacked, burned, shot, murdered, beat many black people involved in these movements.

Who were the White Citizens' Council?

Formed after the Brown ruling. Had 250,000 members, were different from the KKK, and didn't want to associate with that same violence. Wanted to defend racist policies in the South.

What was the Little Rock crisis?

Happened in 1957, after Brown ruling, 9 students tried to enter the Central High School, were subject to torture, and were blocked by white mobs instructed by the Arkansas governor (who was seeking re-election). Showed that supreme court rulings were impractical in practise, and also demonstrated power of television.

Birmingham Campaign causes and aims

Sought desegregation of public facilities, and equal employment opportunities. Chose Birmingham as in MLKs eyes it was the epitome of segregation in America's south, and he knew that Commissioner 'Bull' would mistreat them, bringing them more sympathy on television.

Birmingham Campaign events?

Happened in 1963. Struggled to organise protesters with him initially, as 'Bull' was near to retirement, but after King was jailed, he sent a letter to the world stating that provocation of white violence was the best way to bring awareness to their cause. After he left jail, he convinced school children to join him, and they were badly affected.

Birmingham Campaign impacts/effects?

Didn't really improve Birmingham directly. Black leaders even were shocked that MLK would ask children to do something like this. However, the publicity of the case showcased racism at its worst and inspired many protests- possibly even leading to the establishment of the Civil Rights Bill 1964. Again showed the power of mass protest.

Examples of civil rights successes in early 60s?

Moral victories like Brown inspired people like Parks, Woolworths sit in desegrated lunch counters, Freedom rides in the South exposed a lot of things, King's work ended de jure segregation in the South, and JFK's administration often responded well to protests and revolts.

What was the March on Washington?

In 1963, made up of trade unions and organisations such as SCLC and NAACP, a march was started.

What was the impact of the march on Washington?

1. The involvement of black and white people shows changing attitudes of white Americans

2. The unity of all groups helped to show a united effort

3. It gained widespread publicity for the civil rights movement

4. It solidified federal support for new civil rights legislation which would give the government power to force integration in the south

What did JFK suggest in his July 1960 speech?

This was his speech accepting the democratic nomination, and he suggested his dynamism and how in the New Frontier of the new decade Americans should meet new challenges in science, space, international relations, ignorance, poverty, surplus, and prejudice.

What did Kennedy ask congress for in his New Frontier Legislative system?

Tax cuts to stimulate the economy, minimum wage, a housing department in government to ensure the equal provision and improvement of housing, health insurance for the elderly, schemes to help the unemployed, and federal aid for education

What did Kennedy do to tackle unemployment, poverty, and an unskilled workforce?

Area development Act 1961: granted $394 million to extend employment opportunities: poorly funded but created 26,000 jobs; however 5 million people still unemployed. Manpower Development and Retraining act 1962: approves programmes for more than 12,000 people; Kennedy argued it was beneficial but only subsidised people who provided the training

Methods in which Kennedy aided poor Americans:

a) Social Security Amendments Act 1961- expanded for disabled and elderly expanded

b) Increased minimum wage by a dollar, and covered extra 3.6 million workers (many people still remained uncovered though such as 150,00 laundry women most of whom were black)

c) National highway system expanded, creating more jobs in the construction of it

d) Food and Agricultural act gave subsidies to farmers

e) Omnibus housing act 1961- congress granted $5 Billion, and also granted low-interest loans to those who needed it: but again helped developers and construction unions

Ways congress obstructed JFK?

Rejected: federal aid for education, elderly health care to be expanded, a civil rights bill, tax cuts, and a housing department

Why did Kennedy experience legislative defeats?

Congress dominated by Republicans, congressmen representing small areas opposed expenditure on big cities, did not like congressional bargaining, and invasion of Communist Cuba confirmed that security was more important that local social and economic matters.

What was the Peace Corps?

A program of volunteer assistance, made in 1961, to the developing nations of Asia, Africa, and Latin America, that allowed young Americans to fulfil their "responsibilities" of world peace and development

Were the Peach Corps successful?

"Kennedy's Kiddie Korps"- a bunch of teenagers in bermuda shorts; but 71% of public agreed and approved of this idea. Improved host countries view on America, and both political parties voted to finance it for the next half century.

What made Kennedy want to participate in the Cold War 'space race'?

After a series of humiliations during the Cold War (Sputnik sent into space, US satellite launch failure, Soviet Union sent a man to space, and invasion of Cuba failed), Kennedy needed a success in space to restore his image and faith as a leader.

Did Kennedy get public support for the Space programme?

He spent a lot of time justifying the $40 billion cost of this initiative, saying that by achieving difficult goals in science and space would help measure the nation's greatness. In reality he wanted a cold war win. In 1965, however, 58% of people approved and favoured the moon project.

PRESIDENT TIMELINE:

Eisenhower: 1953-61, Kennedy: 1961-63, Johnson: 1963-69, Nixon: 1969-74, Ford: 1974-77, Carter 1977-81, Reagan 1981-89

What did the 1964 Civil Rights Act achieve?

De jure segregation ended in the South, racial discrimination outlawed fully, as well as discrimination in employment, but DE FACTO RACISM STILL EVIDENT: in schools, voting

Why was the Civil Rights Act passed?

Activism of groups such as NAACP SCLC SNCC, response of northern whites, the feeling that it would be a tribute to the assassination of JFK, and Johnsons persuasion of Congress

What was the Selma Campaign?

March 1985: with half the population being black in Selma, only 23 people were registered voters; so King lead a disenfranchisement campaign; he knew it would elicit white violence. Selma authorities were extremely violent, and put King into jail: and after SNCC and SCLC organised another march, it was dubbed 'Bloody Sunday': as it was so violent.

What was the Voting Rights Act?

1965, outlawed literacy and interpretation tests (means testing), and the power of Southern white registrars was decreased. Great success: 1968- Mississippi had 59% of its black population registered to vote, and as people were registered, they finally had a say in who represented them in office: number of Black Americans in office increased sixfold by 1969

What was King's priority after 1965?

Housing, Ghettos. They faced many problems such as an inability to move out, poor quality education making it harder to break out of this cycle (50-70% youth unemployment in Chicago), and the problem of racist policemen. They resided in poor conditions; making MLK change his priorities. This was after the eruption of the Watts riots, in the Watts ghetto in Los Angeles, where he said it was an economic up-riot.

What was the Chicago campaign?

King focused on Chicago, as de facto segregation was strong, and he wanted to shift the population from the radicalism and violence they were turning to. He aimed to draw attention to the poor living conditions, and thus lead reporters around ghetto homes, and led marches into white districts. Not very successful- after two months, the Mayor made an agreement but reneged as soon as King left Chicago, and the campaign also discouraged white supporters of King's Southern movements and sympathised with white Americans.

King's achievements over his career?

Vital role in the end of de jure segregation, rhetorical skills meant he was leading spokesman for Blacks, march on Washington, Birmingham campaigns, Selma campaigns all led to Civil Rights Act and Voting Rights act. AFFIRMATIVE ACTION FOLLOWED AFTER HIS DEATH!!

King's "failures" over his career?

It is crucial to say that he didn't achieve anything just by himself, but instead with the support of protesters, organisations, the supreme court, Johnson, and many others. Didn't achieve much in Chicago- but the problems were great and long-standing.

Malcom X background?

Born to a struggling midwestern family, and although a bright child, his teachers often reminded him that his ambition to be a lawyer was unrealistic as a black boy. He moved to Boston, and started with small jobs and then moved onto jobs such as drug dealing and robbing-leading to his jailing in 1946

What did the NOI believe, and why did Malcom X find it endearing?

Differed from orthodox Islam, and believed in the superiority of the Black race, with other races being 'evil'. They believed in Black independence and pride, impressing Malcom who agreed that the white man was the 'devil'.

Malcom X's aims, methods, achievements?

Separatism!! Wanted Black people to regain their self-esteem by regaining control of their economy, political landscaped, and social ties. SELF DEFENCE: If whites treated black protesters badly, they should take whatever steps necessary to defend themselves. Drew attention to Northern Ghettos, contributed to pride in being Black, inspired a NEW GENERATION of black Americans, as well as Black Power movement.

What was Black Power?

Different things to different people. To some, it meant black leadership of the movement. To others it meant being proud of one's heritage and remaining culturally distinct from white society. For some, it went so far as to claim that black society was not only equal to white society, but actually superior.

What was the Meredith March? And who was Stokely Carmichael?

Meredith, first black student in Uni of Mississippi, decided to march there, to encourage Black voter registration- but was shot. Both Carmichael'S SNCC and King' SCLC took it up; freedom now vs black power. It drew attention to the division within the civil rights movement itself, gave the phrase 'black power' national prominence, resistance was changing to taking action, and Carmichael was becoming more significant for the Black Struggle.

Who were the Black Panthers, and what were their aims?

A radical black organisation, aimed for full employment, decent housing, education that focused on black pride, reparations, self-determination, an end to police brutality, and an improvement in ghettos.

Black Panthers successes:

Had many successes in ghetto programmes: 40 clinics advising on health welfare and legal rights, breakfast programmes for black school children, raised awareness for sickle cell anaemia (which affected black people disproportionately), and created liberation schools. Appeared strong and fearless, due to their weapons and rhetoric, and protested repressive legislature.

Black Panthers failures:

Often elicited police brutality, with powerful actions. As well as this, their influence and dynamism had decreased massively in the 1970s, due to their own internal divisions, and opposition from police and Nixon administration.

What issues did Mexican Americans face?

By 1968, 80% lived in urban ghettos, where they suffered from unemployment, poor education, poor housing, and police brutality and discrimination. Although organisations such as the LUKAC did exist, they never really gained great public support (like the NAACP), as many Mexicans preferred to stay out of the limelight, as they hoped for a gradual return back to Mexico.

Who were the UFW, and what did they achieve?

Cesar Chavez created the United Farm Workers union, who in 1965 joined a strike started by Filipino farmworkers. Although at the end, growers finally agreed to sign union contracts, the triumph was short lived, as the UFW had become weakened. The organisation:

a) aided the eventual passage of worker-friendly legislation in Cali

b) aided galvanising Mexicans into activism

c) stimulated a civil rights movement

What was the Great Society speech?

Given by Lyndon Johnson in May 1964, it set out the characteristics: such as end of poverty, racial equality, educational reform, modern housing, environmentalism, the end of urban decay, community, and peace with other nations.

Why was Johnson more likely to pass reforms than Kennedy?

Americans were ready to respond to an idealistic president who would repudiate the selfishness of the 50s, after the assassination of JFK wanted an optimistic and positive president, and had a 75% approval rate meaning that congress could much easier by convinced to enact reforming legislation.

Civil rights under Johnson?

Dreamed of racial equality- passed the Civil rights bill (honouring JFK), Voting rights act (Selma campaign), Fair housing act 1968 (honouring King's death): these laws transformed black people's lives in the south, and alongside this, Johnson also used his executive powers to help the spread of affirmative action. OVERALL: although some people still lived in dire conditions, Johnson had helped a lot.

Poverty and unemployment under Johnson?

After declaring a 'War on poverty', the Economic Opportunity Act 1964 was passed, to coordinate the War on Poverty, and they made a lot of progress: VISTA, Head Start, Upward Bound, Food Stamp Act, 35% in minimum wage. % of Americans in poverty fell from 17 to 11%, and federal spending had increased by $7 billion, BUT: people either complained it was overfunded or underfunded, he failed to eradicate poverty- 1/3 of non-white families beneath poverty line, and their unemployment and infant mortality rates double those of whites.

Education under Johnson?

Highlighted the problems: how 54 million Americans hadn't finished high school, and schools were run-down and overcrowded. Johnson persuaded congress to double expenditure to $8 billion, and this money was funnelled to the poorest through the ESEA (elementary and secondary) and HEA (higher). 6.7 million poor children benefited from ESEA, and 11 million from HEA. However: mostly helped students above the poverty line- as not implemented properly (but people argue that there is nothing wrong with helping all students), and in reality it was hard for federal gvnmt to extend their reach into local schools.

Housing under Johnson

Wanted the end of urban decay; thus created the Housing and Urban Development department, the Demonstration Cities Act of $1.6 billion to invest in particular cities, Omnibus housing act 1965, Fair housing act 1968. HUD coordinated many programmes to combat problems, the Omnibus Housing Act financed rent supplements, BUT: Demonstration Cities Act was already underfunded, and didn't only focus on the 6 cities as promised, taxpayers were unwilling to pay for integrated housing; problems were too large for one president to solve.

Healthcare under Johnson?

With the elderly being a large part of the population, healthcare was often a big reason for their poverty. With a large Democratic majority in both houses of Congress, Johnson passed both Medicare and Medicaid in the Social Security Act of 1965. Medicare provided Insurance to elderly and disabled, and Medicaid provided medical assistance to residents who could not afford essential medical practises, helpful BUT: gaps in coverage, and VERY EXPENSIVE!

Why did students protest in the 1960s?

Students targeted authorities, materialism, war, conformity and racism. It was because:

a) Kennedy told them to face the challenges posed by peace, and many believed that change was possible in the society with an idealistic president like JFK

b) The civil rights movement gave practice and inspiration to many young protesters

c) Students resented the college authorities for treating them like children and supported the war in Vietnam

d) They figured they had safety in numbers, and had no family or jobs to lose.

Who were the SDS?

Students for a Democratic Society. Created by Tom Hayden in 1960, they advocated individualism, challenging the conformity, changing the political and economical landscape, and advocated peaceful foreign policy. They promoted this as the 'New Left': which the youth was a part of.

Why was there protests in Berkeley, in 1964?

Mario Savio, wishing to raise money for SNCC on the campus, was barred from doing so as the uni did not allow. This prompted 1000s of students to protest on the infringement of their right to free speech. Known as the Berkeley Free Speech Movement (FSM)

Methods of protest against the Vietnam War?

Marches, teach-ins: 1000 Yale students in May 1964, teach-in in Berkeley, 20,000 in attendance: these methods often led to violence and disorder. Direct protests to drafting- attacking this ROTCS, or burning draft cards publicly.

Why were there protests in Colombia uni 1968?

"Gym Crow". It was also discovered that weapon research was occurring at the university.

What is counter-culture?

Either just hippies, or the entire population that protested the dominant way of life such as feminists, anti-war sentiments, black panthers, and hippies.

Hippies: views, fashion, activities?

Rejected individualism, competitiveness, and materialism, and preferred harmony. Faded blue jeans and patterns + leather fringing, and listened to music that confirmed their beliefs, attended happenings, and smoked cannabis.

What was Woodstock?

A rock festival that drew hundreds of thousands of people to upstate New York in 1969. "Make love not war". Allowed for open sexuality, nudity, and drugs.

In what ways was life unequal for women in the early 1960s?

Although number of women in jobs increased, the economic inequality that came with it was only pronounced. Educated women were expected to choose 'female occupations', such as nursing or teaching, further pushing the inequality. Alongside this, 18 states did not even allow females to become jurors.

How did other protests fuel the feminist movement?

Other protests showed that firstly, things they wanted could be achieves, and as well as this, in many movements themselves women faced discrimination (SDS 33% of members but only 6% of leadership)

Who was Betty Friedan?

A leader of the Women's Liberation Movement; author of The Feminine Mystique; a suburban wife who was sick of the standards women had to live up too. Said women were imprisoned in a 'comfortable concentration camp'

Who were the NOW?

The National Organisation for Women was created by Betty Friedan, and a few others, after the EEOC refused to enforce the equal pay regardless of sex (from the civil rights act). Used many methods such as litigation, protests, political pressure, and increasing public awareness of issues.

Difference between women's rights, and women's liberation?

Mid-60s rights advocated equality of opportunity and work, but the late-60s liberation campaigns advocated the opposition of sexist oppression, and cultural practices that objectified women.

What sort of methods did the women's lib movement use?

People such as Jo Freeman were known for methods such as newsletters, and consciousness-raising meetings. This was complimentary to the works of the NOW. However, people such as Shulasmith Firestone and Ti-Grace Atkinson were known for taking more radical moves: created the New York radical feminists, and Atkinson even left the NOW as she believed it was not radical enough.