IB Psych SL Key Terms and Definitions

Reconstructive Memory

When established knowledge called schemas influence cognitive processing and distort memory. Humans try to find meaning in what they experience and if something seems unfamiliar they will try to fit the experience into existing schemas.

Deception

(In a psychological study) is when the participant is fooled or lied to in order to conduct the experiment and to test some psychological facet.

Schema Theory

A theory of how humans process incoming information, relate it to existing knowledge, and use it. The theory is based on the assumption that humans are active processors of information. People do not passively respond to information. They interpret and integrate it to make sense of their experiences, but they are not always aware of it. If information is missing, the brain fills in the blanks based on existing schemas. The basic assumption of schema theory is that individuals' prior experiences will influence how they remember new information.

System 1

An automatic, intuitive, and effortless way of thinking. System 1 thinking often employs heuristics

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts that involve focusing on one aspect of a complex problem and ignoring others. This ‘fast’ mode of thinking allows for efficient processing of the often complex world around us but may be prone to errors when our assumptions do not match the reality of a specific situation.

System 2

A slower, conscious, and rational mode of thinking. This mode of thinking is assumed to require more effort. System 2 starts by thinking carefully about all of the possible ways we could interpret a situation and gradually eliminates possibilities based on sensory evidence until we arrive at a solution.

Rational Thinking

Allows us to analyze the world around us and think carefully about what is happening, why it is happening, what is most likely to happen next, and how we might influence the situation.

Repeated Measures Design

Research method where the same participants are tested under multiple conditions or at different time points.

Counterbalanced Conditions

Technique used to mitigate the effects of order or sequence, practice, and fatigue on experimental results. Done by systematically varying the order of conditions across different participants.

Demand Characteristics

Cues within a study that subtly suggest to participants how they are expected to behave.

Social Desirability Effect

Type of response bias where individuals tend to answer questions in a way that portrays them in a more favorable light than their true beliefs or behaviors

Confounding Variables

An extraneous variable that influences both the independent and dependent variables, making it difficult to determine if the observed relationship between the independent and dependent variable is actually due to the independent variable.

Flashbulb Memories

Highly detailed, exceptionally vivid "snapshots" of the moment when a surprising and emotionally arousing event happened.

Working Memory

The small amount of information that can be held in mind and used in the execution of cognitive tasks.

The Episodic Buffer

A temporary storage system in working memory that integrates information from multiple sources to create a unified memory, or "episode".

Dual Task Technique

A method of splitting participants’ attention by assigning them two things to do at once.

Phonological Loop

A component of working memory that deals with auditory and verbal information, specifically speech-based information.

The central executive

The control center of working memory, which coordinates cognitive processes and attention.

The framing effect

The different emotions and perspectives evoked by a change in phrasing.

Case studies

Study a behavior over time through the use of triangulation, and are often seen as more credible than other research methods, as it is an in-depth investigation of human experience.

The hippocampus

Responsible for transferring short-term memory to long-term memory.

The Multi-Store Memory Model

Suggests that information from the environment enters sensory memory, then, if attention is given, this information enters short-term memory, and that through rehearsal it can enter long-term memory which is essentially infinite “storage”.

fMRI

Shows actual brain activity and indicates which areas of the brain are active when engaged in a behavior or cognitive process. Measures changes in blood flow in the active brain.

Amygdala

Part of the limbic system, this part of the brain is believed to play a key role in emotion and memory. In addition, there is evidence that it plays a role in aggression, sexual orientation, trust, and alcoholism.

Quasi-experiment

The researcher manipulates an independent variable but does not randomly assign participants to conditions.

Encoding

Refers to the initial processing and transformation of information into a memory trace.

Retrieval

The process of accessing and bringing back stored information when needed.

Scopolamine

An antagonist that blocks the acetylcholine receptor sites and thus inhibits any response

Antagonist

A substance or factor that blocks or opposes the action of another substance or force, often a neurotransmitter or chemical messenger

Serotonin

A chemical messenger that acts as both a hormone and a neurotransmitter in the body

Emotional Stimuli

Events which trigger an emotional response

Tryptophan Depletion

Introduces amino acids, reducing serotonin activity

Prefrontal Cortex

Responsible for decision-making, reasoning, and personality expression

Neural Network

Usually called a neural circuit, a group of neurons interconnected by synapses to carry out a specific function when activated.

Agonists

A chemical or a drug that binds to receptors in the brain and causes a reaction. Can occur naturally in the body as neurotransmitters or come from exterior sources like drugs and toxins.

Mediating Factors

Variables which explain how a cause leads to an effect

Neuroplasticity

The brain’s ability to alter its own structure following changes within the body or in the external environment.

Neurotransmitters

A chemical messenger that carries signals between neurons; released from the terminal buttons at the end of an axon after the action potential has sent an electrical charge down the neuron,and then crosses the synaptic gap to reach the receptor site on another neuron.

Neural pruning

Usually referred to as synaptic pruning refers to the process by which extra neurons and synaptic connections are eliminated in order to increase the efficiency of neuronal transmissions.

Twin studies

Research methodologies that compare identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins to understand the relative roles of genetics and environment in shaping human traits, behaviors, and diseases. By studying differences in characteristics between twin pairs, researchers can gain insights into the extent to which traits are heritable and how environmental factors influence their expression.

Antisocial Behavior

A pattern of actions that consistently violate societal norms and the rights of others.

Genetics

DNA inherited both paternally and maternally

Environmental Factors

The conditions one has grown up with

MHC

A group of genes that play an important role in the immune system. Make molecules that enable the immune system to recognize pathogens; in general, the more diverse the genes of the parents the stronger the immune system of the offspring.

Pheromones

A chemical substance produced and released into the environment by an animal affecting the behavior or physiology of others of its own species.

Hormones

A chemical released by a gland directly into the bloodstream which has an effect on behavior

Testosterone

The male sex hormone. Secreted by the testes in males and the ovaries in females.

Neurons

The fundamental unit of the nervous system, responsible for transmitting information in the form of electrical and chemical signals

Synapse

The junction where a neuron transmits a signal to another neuron

Grey Matter (of the brain)

Responsible for processing and interpreting information.

White matter (of the brain)

Transmits information to other parts of the nervous system

Social Identity Theory

Proposes that individuals derive part of their identity from the groups they belong to and that this group membership influences their behavior and perceptions. Essentially, people categorize themselves and others into social groups (ingroups and outgroups), and this categorization can lead to biases, prejudice, and intergroup conflict.

Stereotypes

A widely held but fixed and oversimplified image or idea of a particular type of person or thing.

Field Experiment

A study that is conducted outside the laboratory in a “real-world” setting.

Salience

When one is highly aware of one of their membership in a social group.

Semi-Structured Interview

A research method that involves a guide or protocol with general areas to explore, allowing for follow-up questions and deviations based on the interviewee's responses. This approach is often used in qualitative research to gather in-depth, open-ended data on personal experiences, beliefs, and feelings.

Interviewer Effect

How an interviewer's characteristics (like age, gender, race) can influence the responses of the interviewee

Researcher Bias

The unintended influence of a researcher's preconceived beliefs or expectations on the research process, including data collection, analysis, and interpretation

Conformity

Refers to the tendency for individuals to align their beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors with those of others. This can be a result of social pressure or more subtle, unconscious influence, impacting group dynamics and even individual actions.

Cultural Dimensions

The ways in which cultural groups differ in their values, beliefs, and behaviors.

Social Learning Theory

Developed by Albert Bandura, suggests that learning occurs primarily through observation, imitation, and modeling. It suggests that people can learn behaviors by watching others and then reproduce those behaviors, even without direct reinforcement.